<p>The First National Bank of Mankato, also known as the Old First National Bank of Mankato and located at 229 South Front Street in Mankato, Minnesota, United States, is a fine example of Prairie School architecture in a commercial building, relating rural life to the development of downtown Mankato as a regional center of commerce and finance. The recently restored exterior is now part of the Mankato Civic Center, the Mayo Clinic Health System Event Center.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The First National Bank of Mankato was one of the three competing financial institutions in the early 20th century, along with the Citizens&#39; National Bank and the Mankato State Bank (previously the Mankato National Bank). The First National Bank went into history as the target of the famous aborted robbery by Jesse James and the James-Younger Gang in 1876.</p><br>
<p>Looking for a new building, First National Bank officials approached Carl K. Bennett of Owatonna, Minnesota where the acclaimed Louis H. Sullivan Prairie School bank had been built. In 1912 he connected them with the famous Minneapolis-based architectural firm of Purcell and Elmslie, both of whom had worked and studied under Sullivan. According to several accounts, Purcell and Elmslie drew extensive blue prints for the proposed building providing them to bank officials for review. Later informed by mail that the bank would not be using them, they requested that their prints be returned. The sketches were, but only after a protracted delay. During which time the bank hired the architects Ellerbe and Round who made drawings very similar to the Purcell and Elmslie submissions.</p><br>
<p>The 1913 Ellerbee and Round construction made so much use of the Purcell and Elmslie sketches that Purcell and Elmslie even received congratulatory letters from some who had assumed the design was theirs as it said "Purcell and Elmslie". Although closely following the Purcell and Elmslie drawings Ellerbe and Round did eliminate a landscaped forecourt and a deep arch in the facade similar to what Purcell and Elmslie had used on their design of the First National Bank (Rhinelander, Wisconsin).</p><br>
<p>Ellerbe and Round would go on to become famous for designing a number of structures for the Mayo Clinic, including the original "Red" Building of 1914.</p><br>
<p>Originally occupying the prominent corner of Front Street South and West Hickory Street, the First National Bank building was threatened with demolition. Instead, the exterior has been restored and incorporated into the south side of the Mayo Clinic Health System Event Center as one of the center&#39;s event spaces. With that portion of Front Street gone, the restored bank exterior can now be accessed at approximately 105 West Hickory Street.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The First National Bank building includes Mankato limestone, brick, and terra cotta in a manner similar to that of the "jewel box" banks of Louis Sullivan or the banks of his former employees, William Gray Purcell and George Elmslie. The brick building&#39;s architectural features include Frank Lloyd Wright-inspired stained glass windows and intricate ornamentation at the roof-line.</p><br>
<p>Even though David Gebhard and Tom Martinson conclude that the resulting building lacks the "liveliness" of a work by Sullivan or by Purcell and Elmslie, they consider it "a good academic exercise in the Prairie Style" and "the most important single building in Mankato."</p><br>
<p>The Fredrika Bremer Intermediate School or Bremer School is a historic former school building in the Camden region of Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. It is considered Minneapolis&#39;s oldest intact school building, whose original section was constructed 1886–87. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places for its significance in architecture and education, representing the 19th-century emphasis on education through its castle-like design and its origin during a frenzy of construction by Minneapolis Public Schools.</p><br>
<p>Construction on Bremer School began in 1886, a period of rapid population expansion in Minneapolis. Initially the school housed grades 1–3 for 70 students. The school was nearly identical in design to two other Minneapolis schools, Calhoun School and Peabody School. The original structure had eight classrooms, but the building was expanded upon several times throughout its nearly 100-year life as a school. East and west wings were added on either side of the original section in 1897, and a gymnasium was added to the rear in 1910, joined by an addition to the northwest in 1916. The Folwell neighborhood building was constructed of light brick and limestone and featured several turrets and towers. Its namesake, Fredrika Bremer (1801–1865) was a Swedish novelist who traveled to Minnesota and wrote about women&#39;s rights. The building has now been converted for use as residential condominia.</p><br>
<p>The Poughkeepsie Savings Bank building is located at 21-23 Market Street in the city of that name in the USA state of New York. It was the third home of that bank, the first in the city, chartered in 1831 by William Davies, on that site. After 20 years on nearby Main Street, the bank bought one of its current lots and built. In 1870 the adjacent lot was purchased and the building expanded yet again, reopening anew two years later. In 1911 the bank&#39;s success led it to commission a completely new building from the firm of Mowbray and Uffinger, who had designed many bank buildings across the Eastern states.</p><br>
<p>They delivered a Classical Revival building, with slightly trapezoidal walls reflecting the constraints of the site. Its front facade, made of Pennsylvania marble on a granite base, uses two Ionic order columns flanked by Doric pilasters. The deeply recessed entryway and vestibule is done in cast bronze and ornamental glass.</p><br>
<p>Inside, the main banking room is a 40 by 40 foot (12 m by 12 m) with 60-foot (18 m) ceilings, with Ionic pilasters and a continuous entablature rising from a white marble floor (currently carpeted) and red marble wainscot. At the time it opened, it also had a skylight and 19 by 17½-foot (6 by 5 m) stained glass window by Philadelphias DAscenzo Studios commemorating the Half Moon on Henry Hudsons journey up the river named for him and Robert Fultons pioneering steamboat journey up the river on the Clermont. The overall effect was to cast the building as a temple of commerce.</p><br>
<p>Originally the tellers counter was a U-shaped extension from the south wall, to allow customer interaction on all three sides. In 1931, Uffinger, Foster & Bookwalter, successor firm to the original architects, was retained to modernize the floor plan, and extended the counter to enclose the buildings northeast corner, but otherwise made no significant alterations. The south wall was opened in 1948 to allow the use of the adjoining building as office space. Nine years later the interior underwent renovations that blocked the skylight and obscured the stained glass. Interior lighting thereafter came from chandeliers, which were themselves replaced after two decades.</p><br>
<p>At that time, the building was meant to be included in Poughkeepsie&#39;s first Multiple Property Submission (MPS) to the National Register of Historic Places, but the bank objected. Later, after it had changed its name to Bank of the Hudson and moved its headquarters elsewhere while retaining the building as a branch, it dropped the objection and the building was added in 1998 as part of a later MPS. The bank itself has since been acquired by TD Banknorth, which used it as a branch office until the early 2010s.</p><br>
<p>In 2016 it was the local headquarters for the Bernie Sanders presidential campaign during the weeks before the New York primary. Volunteers decorated the vault with crime scene tape, and pasted on it a quotation from the candidate: "If a bank is too big to fail, it is too big to exist."</p><br>
<p>The Poughkeepsie Journal Building was the main office of that newspaper, in the city of Poughkeepsie, New York, United States. It is located at Civic Center Plaza, the north end of Market Street. The newspaper sold the building in 2009 and moved out in November 2022.</p><br>
<p>It was built of fieldstone in a Colonial Revival style in 1941. In 1982 it qualified for addition to the National Register of Historic Places, but it was not listed due to an objection by the owner.</p><br>
<p>Andalusia, also known as the Nicholas Biddle Estate, is a historic mansion and estate located on the Delaware River, just northeast of Philadelphia, in Bensalem Township, Bucks County, Pennsylvania. The community surrounding it, Andalusia, takes its name from the 225-acre estate.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The original house was built in 1794 by John Craig, who named it after the Andalusia region of Spain. Craig hired architect Benjamin Latrobe to expand the house in 1806 in a Greek Revival style. In 1811, Craig&#39;s daughter Jane married prominent financier Nicholas Biddle (1786–1844). Biddle and architect Thomas U. Walter expanded the house into a mansion in 1834–36. Walter is best known for his design for the dome of the United States Capitol.</p><br>
<p>Their most dramatic addition was a two-and-a-half-story wing, surrounded on three sides by massive Doric columns, that thrust southward toward the river. This contained twin parlors on the main floor, divided by pocket doors that could be opened to create a single room. The wing ended in a portico, one that has become an icon of Greek Revival architecture. Across the north façade, a two-story block of new rooms created a grand entrance and service spaces. Some of Latrobe&#39;s 1806 spaces were retained in the 1830s alterations, including twin rooms with semi-octagonal ends.</p><br>
<p>Notable Biddle family members include Nicholas&#39;s brother Commodore James Biddle (1783–1848), son Congressman Charles John Biddle (1819–1873), great-grandson and aviator Charles John Biddle (1890–1972), and great-great-grandson and National Trust for Historic Preservation president James "Jimmy" Biddle (1929–2005). The property remains in the Biddle family.</p><br>
<p>The house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1966. According to the National Park Service, "Andalusia is one of the earliest and most pristine examples of the Greek Revival style in the country." Today it is operated as a house museum.</p><br>
<p>BEFORE MAIN HOUSE, CA. 1834 WATERCOLOR BY THOMAS U. WALTER - Andalusia, State Road vicinity (Bensalem Township), Andalusia, Bucks County, PA HABS PA,9-ANDA,1-35.tifAndalusia (circa 1834), watercolor by Thomas U. Walter. This shows Latrobe&#39;s alterations from 1806.</p><br>
<p>The Church of the Mediator is an historic church in Micanopy, Florida which was built in 1874 as a Presbyterian church but since 1966 has been an Episcopal church. It is a contributing property in the Micanopy Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The church was built in 1874 to serve a Presbyterian congregation that dated back to 1854. Presbyterian services continued in the church until the 1960s. In 1966, the property was acquired for an Episcopal mission which started services in the building on October 16, 1966. The name Church of the Mediator was chosen for the new mission to remember the Episcopal church of that name that existed in Micanopy from 1857 to the 1910s, and whose building at another location in Micanopy was torn down in the 1920s.</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>The Church of the Mediator is still active in the Episcopal Diocese of Florida. Its current vicar is the Rev. George Holston.</p><br>
<p>The Henry Antes House is a historic house museum in Upper Frederick Township Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. Built in 1736 by Henry Antes, it is a particularly high-quality example of a Moravian settlement house, with intact original interior finishes. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1992, and is now operated as a museum by Goschenhoppen Historians, a local preservation group.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Henry Antes House stands in a rural setting, roughly midway between Pottstown and Perkiomenville on the south side of Colonial Road a short way east of its crossing of Swamp Creek. It is a two-story structure, built out of local rubblestone and covered by a gabled roof. It is two bays wide and one deep, with the entrance in the leftmost bay of the front facade. Ground-floor openings for doors and windows are topped by segmented-arch stone headers, while those on the second floor are butted against the eaves on the long sides and topped by arches on the short sides. Small windows in the gable ends also have arched tops. The roof is made of wooden shingles.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The house was designed and built by Henry Antes in 1736. It stands today as an example of Moravian settlement houses, in particular of a German three-room plan house. The house is unusual because so much of its original interior finish, including ceilings and board partition walls, have survived. Henry Antes, while largely unknown now, was an important regional religious and political figure of the 18th century, and one of the region&#39;s best-known master builders.</p><br>
<p>In the American Revolutionary War, the house served as headquarters for General George Washington, September 23 to 26, 1777, during the Philadelphia Campaign. Henry&#39;s son, Colonel Philip Frederick Antes (1730&ndash;1801), was an officer in the 6th Philadelphia Militia.</p><br>
<p>It is now owned by the Goschenhoppen Historians, who restored the house and operate it as a museum, offering tours by appointment.</p><br>
<p>Augustus Lutheran Church is a historic church and Lutheran congregation at 717 West Main Street in Trappe, Pennsylvania. Consecrated in 1745, it is the oldest extant Lutheran church building in the United States. It continues to be used by the founding congregation for services on Christmas Eve and during the summer. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1967.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Trappe area was settled in 1717 by Germans who worshipped informally or under itinerant preachers until the arrival of Heinrich Melchior Mühlenberg in 1742. Their first church, which cost 200 pounds sterling, was designed by Mühlenberg. All of the interior fittings were fabricated from local materials, including the pulpit, which is made of American black walnut. The building is constructed of red sandstone (now faced with stucco); the east end of the building is formed into a three-sided apse. Above the south entrance is a date stone inscribed in Latin with the names of the church&#39;s founders, including Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, Frederick Marsteller, John Nicholas Cressman, Anthony Heilman (Hallman), Jacob Miller, Henry Haas, and George Kebner. The roof is framed with oak rafters and covered in cedar shingles. The cemetery at the rear of the building contains tombstones dating from 1736 and earlier, as well as the graves of Muhlenberg, his wife Anna Maria Weiser, and their daughter Mary Swaine and son General Peter Muhlenberg.</p><br>
<p>Although the shell of the building was finished in 1743, the church was not consecrated until 1745. It was named after August Hermann Francke, founder of the Francke Foundations in Halle, Germany, a center of Lutheran Pietism where Henry Melchior Muhlenberg had trained. During the American Revolution, the building was used as a camping site and hospital for the Continental Army. A monument at the west end of the church commemorates unknown Revolutionary War soldiers buried in the cemetery.</p><br>
<p>By the mid-1800s, the congregation had outgrown the old building, and a new brick church was built. This structure was consecrated in 1852, whereupon the old building became used for Sunday School classes. A freak thunderstorm in 1860 severely damaged the roof; however, it was decided to restore the building rather than tear it down. A cast-iron stove was then added to the previously unheated building. Renovations in the 1920s restored the building to its original appearance. In the late 1950s, services were once again held in the Old Church in the summer and on Christmas Eve, a tradition which continues to the present day. A digital organ was placed in the original organ case in the early 1990s.</p><br>
<p>The church was declared a National Historic Landmark on December 24, 1967.</p><br>
<p>Old Trappe Church Interior 1919.JPGPulpit in 1919</p><br>
<p>Augustuscemetery.JPGCemetery and church</p><br>
<p>Historic Brookhaven is a historic neighborhood, part of which lies in Atlanta&#39;s Buckhead Community, part of which lies in Sandy Springs, Georgia, and part of which lies in city of Brookhaven, Georgia, to which it lends its name. Capital City Club country club is at the center of the neighborhood, and it is surrounded by valuable homes, many of which were designed by a number of well-known Atlanta architects of the pre-war period. The neighborhood boundaries are well defined, and it stretches from Peachtree Dunwoody Road to the west, Windsor Parkway to the north, Mabry Drive to the east, and Peachtree Road to the south.</p><br>
<p>Historic Brookhaven has perpetually been one of metropolitan Atlanta&#39;s wealthiest neighborhoods. As of 2010, it has a median household income of $236,393.</p><br>
<p>Castle Hill  also known as the American Flag-Raising Site and now as the Baranof Castle State Historic Site, is a National Historic Landmark and state park in Sitka, Alaska. The hill, providing a commanding view over the city, is the historical site of Tlingit and Russian forts, and the location where Russian Alaska was formally handed over to the United States in 1867. It is also where the 49-star United States flag was first flown after Alaska became a state in 1959.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Castle Hill is a rock outcrop, about 60 ft in height. It occupies a prominent position on the edge of Sitka Harbor, although it is now set back from the sea by several hundred feet due to fill added around its southern and western faces in 1968. The summit area is a generally flat area about 120 ft in length and 90 ft in width. The south face of the hill is sheer, while the eastern face presents a more gradual slope. An accessible trail, with interpretive panels, provides access to the now-bare summit area.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Prior to the arrival of Europeans in the area, Castle Hill was occupied by families of the Kiksadi clan of Tlingits. Alexander Baranov, a leading figure in the Russian-American Company, arrived in the Sitka area in 1795, and sought to establish a trading post on the hill. He ended up establishing Redoubt St. Archangel Michael several miles away in 1799; this trading post was destroyed by the Tlingit in 1802. Baranov returned to Sitka in force in 1804, seized Castle Hill, from which the outnumbered Tlingit had withdrawn. After the six-day Battle of Sitka, the Tlingit formally ceded Castle Hill to the Russians.</p><br>
<p>In 1806 the Russians transferred the headquarters of the Russian-American Company and the seat of government of Russian Alaska to Sitka, and Castle Hill was the focal point of the company and government facilities until 1867. They destroyed the Tlingit houses on the hill, and built a succession of structures on the hills summit. The last of these, a two-story brick building with a cupola on top known as the Governors House, was built in 1836 and was destroyed by fire in 1894.</p><br>
<p>In 1867, after the Alaska Purchase was negotiated, Russian Alaska was formally transferred to the United States in a ceremony held on Castle Hill. The Russian-built Governor&#39;s House was occupied by United States Army commanders until 1877, and remained a center of US government administration until the building burned. In 1898 the hill was transferred to the United States Department of Agriculture, which built a structure on the hill which served as its Alaska headquarters until 1932. This building was then used for a variety of commercial purposes before it was demolished in 1955. The site was then designated a territorial park.</p><br>
<p>When Alaska was admitted as the 49th USA state in 1959, Castle Hill was the location where the first 49-star USA flag in Alaska was raised, though the ceremony was unofficial and secret. The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1962 In 1965 a stone parapet was constructed on the hill, and interpretive plaques were added to a display of six cannons and a flagpole. The property is now administered as part of the Alaska state park system.</p><br>
<p>The Priestley-Forsyth Memorial Library, also known as the Dr. Joseph Priestley House or Cross Keys Inn, in Northumberland, Pennsylvania, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1981.</p><br>
<h2>History and architectural features</h2><br>
<p>This historic library building was originally erected and operated as an inn in 1820. It was purchased circa 1880 by the theologian and scientist Joseph Priestley&#39;s great-grandson, Dr. Joseph Priestley, who used it as a home and medical office. It was converted into a public library circa 1925.</p><br>
<p>It is located at 100 King Street in Northumberland, at the corner of Front Street (Route 11). It is within the Northumberland Historic District, which also includes the Joseph Priestley House.</p><br>
<p>The Northumberland Historic District is a historic district listed in the US government&#39;s National Register of Historic Places in 1988. The "gem" of the district is a National Historic Landmark, the Joseph Priestley House. It includes one other separately Registered Historic Place, the Dr. Joseph Priestley House, also known as the "Priestley-Forsyth Memorial Library". It is bordered roughly by 4th Street, A Street, N. Shore Railroad, and Wheatley Avenue in Northumberland, Pennsylvania.</p><br>
<p>In 1988 there were more than 100 contributing structures and 73 non-contributing structures in the district.</p><br>
<h2>Photos</h2><br>
<p>Seven photos are available:,, ,</p><br>
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<p>Upsala is a historic mansion in Mount Airy, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Considered one of the finest extant examples of Federal architecture, the mansion is a contributing property of the Colonial Germantown Historic District and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and the Philadelphia Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>During the 1777 Battle of Germantown, American troops gathered on the site before attacking British forces across Germantown Avenue at Cliveden, Benjamin Chew&#39;s mansion.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1698, the first owner of the property, Heivert Papen, built a small house on the corner of present-day Johnson Street and Germantown Avenue. The land passed to Dirck (or Dirick) Jansen, one of Germantown&#39;s earliest settlers, and was purchased in 1766 by John Johnson, Sr., son of the builder of the nearby John Johnson House.</p><br>
<p>The property was a staging ground of the Continental Army at the Battle of Germantown on October 4, 1777. Continental cannons were placed on the front lawn, and fired at Cliveden (Benjamin Chew House).</p><br>
<p>John Johnson, III inherited the property in 1797 and built Upsala Mansion. Raised as an English-speaking Quaker, Johnson married Sally Wheeler in 1801, and together they had nine children at Upsala. The building may have been named after the Swedish city of Uppsala, though that is unconfirmed. There is additional speculation that one of the Johnson family members was quite taken with, and subsequently named the house after, the Swedish author, Fredrika Bremer.</p><br>
<p>The small house built by Papen was demolished in 1883.</p><br>
<p>In the 1920s, the annual began re-enacting the Battle of Germantown, including the attack from Upsala Mansion to Cliveden, on the first Saturday of October.</p><br>
<p>Upsala Mansion was owned and occupied by the Johnson family until 1941. Dr. William Johnson, chief of staff of Germantown Hospital, died deeply in debt. In 1941, the property was seized from his widow, Sarah Trowbridge Bartow Johnson.</p><br>
<p>In September 1942, the property was vandalized, and the roof was heavily damaged by fire. The property was put up for auction and the mansion slated for demolition. There were talks about building a supermarket on the site.</p><br>
<p>In 1944, a group of local preservationists led by Frances Anne Wister acquired the house and established a foundation to restore the property. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places January 13, 1972.</p><br>
<p>The house operated as a museum until the early 2000s, when the museum closed due to lack of visitors. The Upsala Foundation merged with Cliveden, which managed the property in cooperation with the National Trust for Historic Preservation. In 2016, they put the property up for sale.</p><br>
<p>The house was sold to two preservation-minded millennials, Alex Aberle and Violette Levy, who are converting the house from a museum back into a single family home. To secure the deal, the new owners agreed to allow the annual battle re-enactment.</p><br>
<h2>In Popular Culture</h2><br>
<p>Summer 1999 director Andrew Repasky McElhinney shot interiors and exteriors at Upsala as the primary location for his second feature as a writer/director, the period art-horror film, A Chronicle of Corpses, starring Marj Dusay, Kevin Mitchel Martin, Oliver Wyman, David Semonin, Margot White and Ryan Foley. A Chronicle of Corpses was praised by Dave Kehr of The New York Times as belonging "to the small but significant tradition of outsider art in American movies - films like Herk Harveys Carnival of Souls or George Romeros Night of the Living Dead - that reflect powerful personalities formed outside any academic or professional tradition.” The original camera negative of A Chronicle of Corpses is in the permanent collection of MoMA - The Museum of Modern Art (New York) along with other movies directed by McElhinney.</p><br>
<p>The Armstrong Tunnel in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, connects Second Avenue at the South Tenth Street Bridge, under the Bluff where Duquesne University is located, to Forbes Avenue between Boyd Street and Chatham Square.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>The tunnel was constructed between 1926 and 1927. The chief engineer was Vernon R. Covell of the Allegheny County Public Works Department. The tunnel portals were designed by a city architect, Stanley L. Roush, who is also noted for the Smithfield Street Bridge portals, the Pittsburgh City-County Building, the Corliss Tunnel, and many other municipal projects.</p><br>
<h2>Characteristics</h2><br>
<p>The tunnel itself is characterized by twin bores of horseshoe cross-section, and bends halfway through. It also has a pedestrian walkway on the western side.</p><br>
<p>A legend mentioned by the site involves a notion that the bend in the tunnel was a mistake, and whoever was responsible committed suicide in shame. Chief engineer Covell did not kill himself, invalidating this legend. Author Bruce S. Cridlebaugh suspects the bend was related to mines or other geological factors, property rights (including Duquesne University), or alignments with existing or proposed roads.</p><br>
<p>Since August 1987 the tunnels have provided cellular phone reception.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The tunnels were named in honor of Joseph G. Armstrong, County Director of Public Works. Most of the bridges over the Pittsburghs three rivers were replaced between 1910 and 1940, years which included Mr. Armstrongs terms as Mayor of Pittsburgh and Allegheny County Commissioner.</p><br>
<p>The Beginning Point of the USA Public Land Survey is the point from which the United States in 1786 began the formal survey of the lands known then as the Northwest Territory, now making up all or part of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. The survey is claimed to be the first major cadastral survey undertaken by any nation. The point now lies underwater on the state line between Ohio and Pennsylvania. Because it is submerged, a monument commemorating the point is adjacent to the nearest roadway and located on the state line between East Liverpool, Ohio and Ohioville, Pennsylvania. The area around the marker was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1965.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The monument commemorating the survey point is located on the north side of the Ohio River, on the south side of the road designated Ohio State Route 39 to the west and Pennsylvania Route 68 to the east. It is near the three-way intersection of Ohio, Pennsylvania, and the northern tip of West Virginia, in both the Pittsburgh metropolitan area and the East Liverpool micropolitan area. It is inscribed "1,112 feet south of this spot was the point of beginning for surveying the Public Lands of the United States."</p><br>
<p>The Public Land Survey System of the United States was established by Congressional legislation in 1785, in order to provide an orderly mechanism for opening the Northwest Territory for settlement. The ordinance directed the Geographer of the United States, Thomas Hutchins, to survey an initial east-west base line. Hutchins began in 1786, using as his starting point a stake on north bank of the Ohio River placed by a 1785 survey team from the states of Virginia and Pennsylvania to fix their common north-south boundary (now the boundary between Pennsylvania and the northern tip of West Virginia). Hutchins&#39; work, completed in 1787, established the Seven Ranges, with a baseline extending about 42 mi westwards of the north-south line. This survey is believed to be "the first mathematically designed system and nationally conducted cadastral survey in any modern country."</p><br>
<p>The monument was placed in 1881, and is maintained by the East Liverpool Historical Society. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965 and designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1985.</p><br>
<p>The Dr. Charles G. Crosse House is a historic home built circa 1865 and located at 133 W. Main Street in Sun Prairie, Wisconsin, United States. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1993.</p><br>
<p>Charles G. Crosse moved to Sun Prairie in 1860 and was instrumental in its development. He was the city&#39;s doctor and operated a drugstore. Dr. Crosse and his son Charles S. Crosse published a newspaper called The Countryman, which documented the daily activity of the area. He served as village president, on the school board, and as a state legislator.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after returning from his service as a physician in the Civil War, Crosse built the house that is the subject of this article. The house is 1.5 stories, with a T-shaped floor plan. The style is Carpenter Gothic, clearly marked by the ornate scroll-sawn vergeboards on the gable end, and the decorations on the posts that support the broad front porch. The front door contains a round-topped window, and the tall multi-paned window in the dormer above has a similar round top. On each side of the front door is a French door which opens onto the porch. From the center of the house rises a chimney topped with a brick arch.</p><br>
<p>Crosse lived in the house until he died in 1908. His family owned the house until 1919. Later it was made into rental units, and was losing its integrity by 1976. In that year a group of preservation-minded citizens got together and began restoring it.</p><br>
<p>Rocky Mount Mills, located in Rocky Mount, North Carolina, was the second cotton mill constructed in the state of North Carolina, dating back to 1816. Capitol Broadcasting Company bought the 150 acre mills in the 2007 and has since redeveloped it into a mixed-use campus of breweries, restaurants, lofts, office, and event space.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first use of slave labor in a cotton mill in North Carolina occurred in 1817, when Colonel Joel Battle and Henry A. Donaldson founded the Rocky Mount Mills on the Tar River. The mills had over two thousand spindles and had a working force made of only black people. The majority were slaves but a few were free people. Black people were continuously used by the mills for thirty-four years. In 1825, Henry A. Donaldson built a new mill in Fayetteville roughly the size of the one in Rocky Mount. The mill in Fayetteville used only slaves.</p><br>
<p>"...Especially before the Civil War, according to historian Holland Thompson, "a majority of the people in the Middle and Western counties dressed chiefly in the clothes of domestic or local manufacture." A superintendent of the Rocky Mount Mills recalled that in the 1850s he sold most of the coarse yarns produced at the mill "in five pound bundles for the country trade- this was woven by the country women on hand looms." He sold the surplus yarns for "coarse filling for the Philadelphia market." During the antebellum period and well into the twentieth century, North Carolina was known for its "little spinning mills" that produced lower grades of yarn for home manufacture and later for the weaving mills of New England and the Middle Atlantic States."</p><br>
<p>During the last months of the conflict, the Confederacy drew its entire supply of textile goods from North Carolina mills. Northern troops recognized the significance of the textile industrys contribution to the war effort. In raids led by General William T. Sherman, Union troops laid waste to most of Eastern North Carolinas manufacturing base by burning the Rocky Mount Mill on the Tar River, the Great Falls Mill in Rockingham, NC, and five of the six mills in the Fayetteville vicinity. In the western counties, Union General George Stoneman stationed his cavalry in the Fries Woolen and Cotton Mill while his troops destroyed nearly 1,700 bales of cotton the company had stored in High Point, NC. Stonemans raiders also set fire to Pattersons Mill in Caldwell County, a woolen mill in Guilford County, and a cotton mill in Salisbury, NC that had served as a Confederate prison during the war. Those mills that escaped direct physical destruction during the final months of the war nevertheless entered the postwar period in a weakened condition with little operating capital, obsolete or worn-out machinery, and a sharply reduced demand from local markets.</p><br>
<p>From 1825 to 1883, the Battle family maintained ownership of the mill. As the southern cotton industry expanded after the Civil War, the cotton mill experienced rapid growth. The company also supported a residential village for employees, which was eventually incorporated into the city of Rocky Mount in the 1920s. The mill was a major supplier of cotton yarn to the United States Army during World War II. The mills and surrounding mill village are included in the Rocky Mount Mills Village Historic District.</p><br>
<p>The United States suffered a general decline in the textile industry, and by the time the mill closed in 1996, it was the oldest Southern textile company.</p><br>
<h2>Redevelopment</h2><br>
<p>Rocky Mount Mills has been in the process of redevelopment since 2014 by Capitol Broadcasting Company, which also owns the popular American Tobacco campus in downtown Durham, North Carolina. Its main attraction is as an incubator for craft breweries, as well as being home to a number of restaurants. The mill itself has been turned into lofts, office, and event space. The approximately 100 historical homes in the mills village have also been updated and are available to rent.</p><br>
<p>In 2019, the River and Twine hotel opened on the campus, a collection of 20 boutique tiny house hotels. The next phase of development is Goat Island on the Tar River, which will offer public access to hiking trails, sandy beaches, and paddling sports.</p><br>
<p>The main USA Post Office, Poughkeepsie, New York, is located at the intersection of Market and Mansion Streets downtown; the address is 55 Mansion Street. The New Deal post office serves the 12601 ZIP Code, which covers the city of Poughkeepsie, New York and portions of the Town of Poughkeepsie adjacent to the city. It employs a hundred people and handles 300,000 pieces of mail a day and 10 million a year.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The building was the second of five post offices in Dutchess County built during the New Deal. It was the first for which President Franklin D. Roosevelt, a native of Hyde Park, took a close personal interest in the design. He had written in 1928 of his desire to preserve the stone buildings in the Hudson Valley built by early Dutch settlers of the region, including his ancestors, which he feared was disappearing. The simple and modest style of the stone houses built by all those early settlers regardless of wealth was, to him, an example that should be followed by everyone.</p><br>
<p>Earlier in the decade, nearby Beacon had received a new post office in local fieldstone designed by Gilbert Stanley Underwood. When Poughkeepsie&#39;s turn came, Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau demanded that it be made of irregular fieldstone in the Dutch style, modeled after a demolished county courthouse that had been built in 1809. Architect Eric Kebbon followed the design but originally turned in a building that was to use granite. Roosevelt personally ordered him to redesign it to his specifications and would not let construction proceed until it was.</p><br>
<p>Roosevelt laid the cornerstone himself at a dedication ceremony during celebrations of the 250th anniversary of Poughkeepsie&#39;s settlement on October 13, 1937. Five hundred workers would spend the next two years building the 63,000-square foot (5,670 m²) structure.</p><br>
<p>The final building included a lobby with five murals painted by artists commissioned by the Section of Fine Arts. The paintings depict scenes in local and state history, including the ratification of the United States Constitution by New York. The success of its design inspired Roosevelt to push for similar stone post office buildings in other Dutchess County towns along the river, and it influenced the similar design of new offices built nearby for the Poughkeepsie Journal newspaper. The Smithsonian Institution chose it as one of ten New York post offices among the five hundred most beautiful in the country. It has been on the National Register of Historic Places since 1989.</p><br>
<p>On October 22, 2008, the cupola, undergoing renovation at the time, was damaged by a fire, causing the building to be closed for a few days. The rest of the building remained undamaged. City fire investigators said the likely cause was accidental, from heat guns used by the painters working on it.</p><br>
<p>Willis Hall is a historic building on the campus of Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota, United States. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Willis Hall was the first building specifically built for the college. The first students started attending classes at the former American House hotel in Northfield in 1867, but the building had some serious mechanical problems. Construction of a new building began in 1868, but construction was slow and halted before the building could be erected due to lack of funds. The president of the college, James W. Strong, traveled to New England in 1870 for a fundraising tour. After Strong was injured in a railroad accident and subsequently recovered from his injuries, benefactor William Carleton donated $50,000 to the college to insure its survival. His wife, Susan Willis Carleton, donated $10,000 to help clear the construction debt of the colleges the first permanent building. The building was named Willis Hall in her honor. It was designed in the French Second Empire style by a prominent Minneapolis architecture firm, Alden and Howe. The upper floor was a mens dormitory, the first floor a chapel, and the rest of the building was lecture space and library.</p><br>
<p>On December 23 1879, a fire ravaged the building, gutting it entirely. It was rebuilt with minor changes to the exterior, as well as improvements to the chapel, a new classroom, and a furnace. From 1954 to 1979, Willis officially operated as the campus student union, and it housed the campus bookstore, the post office, a game room, a darkroom, lounges, and the KARL radio station (now known as KRLX). Currently, the building houses the economics department, the education studies department and the department of political science.</p><br>
<p>Scoville Memorial Library is a historic building on the campus of Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota, United States. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It was the college&#39;s library until the current library was built in the 1950s. Until 2016 it housed several student support organizations and the Cinema and Media Studies department. The building underwent extensive renovations for restoration and accessibility and currently houses the Admissions and Financial Aid offices.</p><br>
<p>It was built in 1896 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1982.</p><br>
<p>The construction of this library "completed the historic core of buildings" on the Carleton College campus. Also NRHP-listed on the campus are Willis Hall, built 1868–72, and Goodsell Observatory, built 1887.</p><br>
<p>Skinner Memorial Chapel is a chapel and historic building on the campus of Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota, United States. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The chapel was built in 1916, fifty years after Carleton College was founded, and was financed by a gift from Emily Willey Skinner. Her husband, Miron Skinner, had been a trustee of the college until his death in 1909. The chapel was designed by the firm of Patton, Holmes & Flinn, who had organized an architectural plan for the college and designed eight other buildings. The chapel is of English Gothic Revival design, with a Latin cross shape and a tall bell tower. The interior has a dark wood ceiling with dark beams.</p><br>
<p>It hosts services from a variety of religious traditions as well as weekly Carleton functions.</p><br>
<p>The Alexander Faribault House is a historic house museum in Faribault, Minnesota, United States. Built in 1853, it was the first wood-frame house constructed in Rice County, Minnesota. It was built by fur trader Alexander Faribault in the Greek Revival style. Besides serving as a house, it also served as a civic center, polling place, and a church. The local address of the house is 12 First Avenue, Faribault, MN. The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.</p><br>
<p>Alexander Faribault, son of Jean Baptiste Faribault, was a contemporary of Henry Hastings Sibley and served as his secretary for a time. In 1835, Alexander Faribault set up a trading venture at the confluence of the Straight River and the Cannon River. He had a relationship of mutual respect with the Dakota Indians with whom he traded, even to the degree of sheltering friendly Indians during the Dakota War of 1862. In 1853, he built a large frame house. His house reflected his prosperity, with nine bedrooms, a music room, a parlor, a sitting room, an office, a kitchen, a summer kitchen, and a sewing room. Part of his wealth came from "traders&#39; claims" stemming from the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux, but he was also the proprietor of a sawmill and a flour mill. In turn, he was generous to the community, donating $3,000 to Bishop Henry Benjamin Whipple for the church and for Shattuck School. He also donated land for the Seabury Divinity School. He served as a delegate to the Minnesota Territorial Legislature and remained friends with Henry Mower Rice and Henry Hastings Sibley, even though Rice and Sibley were personal and political enemies.</p><br>
<p>The Thomas Law House  was constructed between 1794 and 1796 near present-day 6th and N Streets, Southwest in Washington, D.C. The builder was a syndicate headed by James Greenleaf, an early land speculator in the District of Columbia.</p><br>
<p>In March 1796, Thomas Law moved into the house after his marriage to Martha Washington&#39;s eldest granddaughter, Eliza Parke Custis. The house became known as "Honeymoon House" as the Laws lived there during their honeymoon while awaiting completion of their house. They did not stay long, as by the summer of 1796 they have moved to their home on the west side of New Jersey Avenue north of C Street</p><br>
<p>Thomas Law was the son of Edmund Law, the Bishop of Carlisle. Among his brothers were:</p><br>
<p>John Law, Bishop of Clonfert and Kilmacduagh, Bishop of Killala and Achonry, and Bishop of Elphin.</p><br>
<p>Edward Law, 1st Baron Ellenborough, Lord Chief Justice 1802–1818.</p><br>
<p>George Henry Law, Bishop of Chester 1812–1824, Bishop of Bath and Wells 1824–1845.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Law spent many years in India, where he made a fortune in trade. Law came to Washington, D.C., in the summer of 1794. He was one of Washington&#39;s wealthiest citizens and was active, although not successful, in business enterprises. He eventually lost his fortune.</p><br>
<p>Law met Greenleaf in November or December 1794 and was deeply impressed with him. On December 4, 1794, Greenleaf sold 500 city lots to Law for £50,000 (or $133,000). The price per lot was $297.60, a 372 percent increase over the $80 per lot which Greenleaf had paid just a year earlier.</p><br>
<p>In 1816, former Congressman Richard Bland Lee and his wife Elizabeth (Collins) Lee purchased the house.</p><br>
<p>During the Civil War, it was the Mt. Vernon Hotel. Starting around 1913, it was the Washington Sanitarium&#39;s Mission Hospital. Dr. Henry G. Hadley operated a clinic in the house from 1923 to 1961.</p><br>
<p>The National Park Service listed the Thomas Law House on the National Register of Historic Places on August 14, 1973.</p><br>
<p>Kern Bridge or Yaeger Bridge crossed the Le Sueur River in Blue Earth County in the USA state of Minnesota. It was built in 1873 using a bowstring through truss design by the Wrought Iron Bridge Company. It was 183.5 ft long and carried a local road. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 as Minnesota&#39;s only bowstring arch truss bridge and oldest road bridge still in use. However, it was closed to vehicle traffic in 1991.</p><br>
<p>In 2019, the Minnesota Department of Transportation (MnDOT) announced plans to dismantle the bridge and store it for eventual reuse elsewhere. According to the department&#39;s website, it has been removed and is available for suitable relocation.</p><br>
<p>Less than 5 mi downstream from its original site, the historic 1873 Kern Bridge has found a new home connecting the Land of Memories Park to Sibley Park in Mankato. Mankato will receive federal funding (80 percent of cost) to relocate and rehabilitate the bridge.</p><br>
<p>According to MnDOT, "Although Mankato is urban, the future Kern Bridge setting is wooded, crosses a large river, and is a similar context to the original bridge site." Pedestrians and bicyclists will access the bridge through the existing trail system. "The bridge will be seen from the north via a scenic overlook and from the south via USA Highway 169. Though the proposal included use of extensive approach spans to meet the river’s width," MnDOT says, "the choice of a streamlined girder will allow the arch to be visually prominent, an important consideration in re-listing the bridge" on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The Church of the Assumption Catholic Church was dedicated in 1874 and is the oldest existing church in Saint Paul. It is located at 51 West Seventh Street, in downtown Saint Paul. The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The parish was founded in 1856 by Bishop Joseph Crétin. At that time, immigrants from Germany were arriving, and the single Catholic parish in St. Paul mainly served French and Irish settlers, with services in Latin and sermons in their own languages. The first building was a plain stone structure with a wooden steeple on West Ninth Street. The founding pastor was Father George Keller. After Fr. Keller was transferred to Faribault, Minnesota in 1858, staffing of the parish was met by priests and brothers from St. John&#39;s Abbey (Order of St. Benedict) in Collegeville, Minnesota.</p><br>
<p>By 1869 the parish had outgrown the small chapel and a new building was urgently needed. The churchs construction was ordered by then-Archbishop John Ireland, who wanted the citys growing Catholic German immigrant population to have a parish of their own. It was built in a plain Romanesque style of Lake Superior limestone by German Catholics, and is said to have been modeled after the Ludwigskirche in Munich. The architect, Joseph Reidel, was a court architect for the Wittelsbach family in Bavaria, Germany.</p><br>
<p>It was built, according to the plans of the Bavarian Joseph Reidel, by the Germans in 1869–1874 in a neo-Romanesque, stone-washed style of Lake Superior.</p><br>
<p>The interior design of the church has remained substantially unchanged since the late 19th century. The statue of the Blessed Virgin Mary in the high altar came from the first church. There are shrines to Thérèse of Lisieux and Maria-Hilf; altars for the Blessed Mother and St. John the Baptist, St. Joseph, and St. Lawrence; tapestries of the Good Samaritan and the Sts. Peter and Clemens Society; and other works of art.</p><br>
<p>As the parish grew, five daughter churches were spun off: Sacred Heart, St. Francis de Sales, St. Matthew&#39;s,</p><br>
<p>Church of St. Agnes and Church of St. Bernard.</p><br>
<h2>Staff</h2><br>
<p>Pastor: Father Paul Treacy</p><br>
<p>The Fort Payne Opera House, located at 510 Gault Avenue North in Fort Payne, DeKalb County in the USA state of Alabama built during the industrial boom in 1889. The Fort Payne Opera House is the only one in the State of Alabama still in use. The establishment has been used as a movie theater, live theater and a public forum. The Opera House still hosts live theatrical events and is on the National Register of Historic Places and the National Register of 19th Century Theaters in America. Completely restored, the Opera House is a cultural center of the community.</p><br>
<p>The Pilgrim Baptist Church located at 732 Central Avenue West in Saint Paul in the USA state of Minnesota is the building that houses the first Black Baptist congregation in Saint Paul. The congregation was founded on November 15, 1866, by Reverend Robert Hickman and a group of escaped slaves from Boone County, Missouri. They were smuggled up the Mississippi River on the steamer War Eagle with the help of Union Soldiers and the Underground Railroad. The current building, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, was built in 1928.</p><br>
<p>The First Congregational Parsonage is a former clergy house in Wabasha, Minnesota, United States. It was built in 1872 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982 for being one of the city&#39;s finest examples of a frame Italianate building. However, in 1987 it was moved from its original location at 305 Second Street West due to construction of the Wabasha–Nelson Bridge. Removed from its historic context in a riverfront residential district, the parsonage was delisted from the National Register in 1992.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The First Congregational Parsonage is a two-story frame building with a front wing and a slightly smaller rear wing. The cubiform front wing measures 26.5 by while the rear section measures 21 by. The building has a low-pitched hip roof whose eaves are supported by evenly spaced brackets. Both sections have clapboard siding with corner boards.</p><br>
<p>The main wing has sash windows set in segmental arch wood surrounds with infill at the tops of the arches. The main entry is offset on the front façade, balanced by paired windows on the first and second floor. This doorway has a clear glass transom window. The main entrance originally had a decorative open porch, which was later replaced by a simpler porch with a hip roof and plain columns. What was originally the east side elevation has a cantilevered bay with a bracketed cornice on the first floor and a paired sash window on the second. The windows of the rear section are double-hung in simple wood frames.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The First Congregational Parsonage was built in 1872 to house clergy for the adjacent Congregational Church of Wabasha. The congregation had been organized in February 1856, making it Wabashas second-oldest religious group, and the church had been built in 1866. The parsonages first occupant was Reverend C. K. Honeyman.</p><br>
<p>The building served as clergy housing until 1955, when it became a secular private home. The church officially sold the property in 1959, and it went through a succession of owners over the next two decades. In 1979 new owners Dr. Jay and Warya Greenberg had the interior remodeled to serve as a chiropractic clinic. It continued to serve in that function for the next seven years.</p><br>
<p>In 1986 the Minnesota Department of Transportation was building a new bridge to carry Minnesota State Highway 60 over the Mississippi River into Nelson, Wisconsin, and the First Congregational Parsonage was on property needed to build the bridge approach. The Department of Transportation worked with the Minnesota State Historic Preservation Office to move the historic building to a new site within Wabasha. The house was moved the following year to 100 Coulee Way.</p><br>
<p>In its new location it became a bed and breakfast known as the Cottonwood Inn. It was so named because it was adjacent to one of the largest cottonwood trees in Wabasha County.</p><br>
<p>Taylors Falls Public Library is the public library of Taylors Falls, Minnesota, United States, still operating in its original 19th-century building. Originally constructed as a tailor shop in 1854, the building was remodeled and converted into a library in 1887. Taylors Falls Public Library was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 for its local significance in the themes of architecture and education. It was nominated for being an intact example of small-town libraries as they existed before Carnegie libraries and bookmobiles and for its Carpenter Gothic/Stick style architecture.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Taylors Falls Public Library is a one-story, two-room building measuring 32 ft long and 14 ft wide. It is of wood frame construction with clapboard siding on a sandstone foundation. The front door is capped by a Gothic Revival canopy and flanked by Stick-style windows with Eastlake movement decorations. Elaborately sawn and turned ornaments adorn the bargeboards and front façade. A 14 by lean to abuts the rear.</p><br>
<p>Inside the front room features a plastered barrel vault ceiling, while the back room has a pressed tin ceiling.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The building was originally constructed as a simple tailor shop in 1854 by John Jacob Spengler, who operated his business in the front and lived in the back room with his family. Spengler sewed uniforms for Union soldiers during the American Civil War. In 1887 the building was sold to the Taylors Falls Library Association for use as a library. Thomas Peck converted the building to its new use and added ornamentation typical of the late 19th century. The rear lean-to was added sometime later.</p><br>
<p>The library continues to operate in the building, with a collection of 10,000 items.</p><br>
<p>Schechs Mill is a historic mill in Houston County, Minnesota, United States. It is one of three watermills in Minnesota still operating solely with water power and the only one to have its original millstones. Built by John Blinn in 1876, it was purchased by a Minneapolis miller, Michael Schech who had emigrated from Bavaria, Germany. The mill produced cornmeal, rye buckwheat, wheat flour, graham flour, and whole wheat cereal, which was sold in Caledonia and Houston, Minnesota. Schechs Mill is unique in the state for retaining intact and operable machinery from the 1870s, after the middlings purifier had been introduced but before millstones were supplanted by roller mills. In 1922, a concrete dam was built to replace the original wooden one.</p><br>
<p>Schech Mill is situated in the Driftless Area a region of the American Midwest noted for its deeply carved river valleys.</p><br>
<p>Private tours of the mill can be arranged most summer weekends which include an authentic flour grinding demonstration.</p><br>
<p>The Femco Farms consisted of five farm properties established in Wilkin County, Minnesota, United States, in the 1920s and 1930s to experiment with livestock breeding and agricultural diversification. They were created by Frederick E. Murphy, publisher of the Minneapolis Tribune newspaper, to demonstrate improved techniques like crop rotation that could benefit farmers. The Femco Farms became famous for their influential practices, and especially for their incredibly productive dairy cows. The best preserved of the five properties, Femco Farm No. 2, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 for its local significance in the area of agriculture.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Ordered by his doctor in 1918 to spend more time outdoors to combat frail health, newspaper publisher Frederick E. Murphy moved from Minneapolis to his wife&#39;s family farm in Wilkin County. He had long dreamed of experimenting with improved agricultural techniques, and began buying farm properties in the area. The name he gave them, "Femco", was based on his initials.</p><br>
<p>The Femco Farms grew oats, barley, corn, alfalfa, sweet clover, rye, and flax. More importantly, Murphy invested exclusively in purebred livestock, namely Percheron horses, Duroc Jersey hogs, McKarrow Shropshire sheep, white Orpington chickens, and Holstein dairy cows. The farms experimented with stock raising, crop rotation, and soil fertilization, and promoted diversified farming—rather than the usual focus on a few cash crops—as the solution to many of the agricultural challenges of the day.</p><br>
<p>However the Femco Farms were particularly famous for their dairy cows, winning numerous awards. One Holstein cow, Lady Pride, was showcased at the 1932 Minnesota State Fair. At the time she produced more butter than any other cow, yielding 35,626 lbs of milk and 1,483 lbs of butter in one year; at the time, the average cow yielded 4,000 lbs of milk and 170 lbs of butter. Another Holstein, Daisy Aaggie Ormsby III, produced 1,607 lbs of butter over the course of a year, a new record. Murphy claimed that the yields his animals achieved could be reproduced by typical farmers using his techniques.</p><br>
<p>Murphy became president of the Minneapolis Tribune in 1921 and moved back to Minneapolis. After his death in 1940, the Femco Farm properties were auctioned off to separate owners. His award-winning dairy herds were sold as well, with some cows fetching $4,000 each.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The original Femco Farm No. 1 is located 5 mi north of Breckenridge, Minnesota. Though its structures are quite dilapidated, it is readily visible from USA Route 75. Femco Farm No. 2 is in Roberts Township just north of Kent. Farm No. 3 was in Mitchell Township, No. 4 was located just north of No. 1, and No. 5 was in Manston Township. A sixth property known as Femco No Number, at which the farms&#39; manager lived, was one mile north of Breckenridge.</p><br>
<h2>Femco Farm No. 2</h2><br>
<p>Femco Farm No. 2 totaled 1,200 acre. It was established in 1922, and 12 structures were built that year or shortly after. Still extant at the time of the propertys National Register nomination in 1979 were the foreman and workers house, a granary, milk house, dairy barn, silo, hog barn, sheep barn, horse barn, and machine shed. Three original structures—a chicken coop, windmill, and guest house for Murphy—had been demolished. The dairy barn is particularly distinctive, consisting of two large gambrel-roofed wings joined by a connecting hallway with its own gambrel roof.</p><br>
<p>Femco Farm No. 2 was nominated to the National Register of Historic Places as the best preserved of the five Femco Farms, which "had a lasting impact on the agricultural history of Wilkin County—and through its breeding stock, on USA agriculture."</p><br>
<p>The Clyde Hotel is a historic hotel located in the downtown area of Portland, Oregon, United States. It was renamed to Ben Stark Hotel in 1987, then became the Ace Hotel Portland in 2005. In June 2024 building ownership left the Ace Hotel group the hotel retained its original name while partnering with hospitality company Kasa and rebranded as The Clyde Hotel Portland by Kasa.</p><br>
<h2>National Register</h2><br>
<p>The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1994.</p><br>
<p>South Candler Street–Agnes Scott College Historic District is a historic district in Decatur, Georgia that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994. It includes Agnes Scott College, also known as Decatur Female Seminary  and as Agnes Scott Institute , and Little Decatur.</p><br>
<p>In 1994 it included 88 contributing buildings, two contributing structures, and a contributing object, as well as 19 non-contributing buildings and two non-contributing structures.</p><br>
<p>The oldest house in the district is the Italianate C. M. Candler House (1870s) at 158 South Candler. Another old one is the George Washington Scott House (1883) at 312 South Candler Street which has a double gambrel roof and Queen Anne detailing.</p><br>
<p>The oldest building on the campus is Agnes Scott Hall (1891), known also simply as "Main," a three-story, brick building designed by local architects Bruce and Morgan.</p><br>
<p>The Madison Carnegie Library or Madison Public Library, located at 401 Sixth Avenue, Madison, in the USA state of Minnesota is a public library building built in 1905 of brick with limestone trim. Its characteristic features include a columned and pedimented main entrance and a small polygonal dome on its flat roof. The structure was built with an $8,000 grant from Andrew Carnegie. This was one of over 3,000 libraries in 47 states funded by Carnegie. Local residents gave an additional $1,000 in gifts and books at its dedication on January 22, 1906. Gerhard Herriges, a contractor for public buildings in Western Minnesota, built the building for $6,216.85.</p><br>
<p>The Assumption School is a historic school building in Saint Paul in the USA state of Minnesota. It was built in 1864 of local quarter-cut limestone. It had a central cupola, which has been replaced. The school is affiliated with the nearby Church of the Assumption.</p><br>
<p>The building, in 1974, was "in a good state of preservation although it has not been used as a school since 1888. It presently serves as quarters for the parish caretaker and is maintained by the Assumption Church." The building has been documented by the Historic American Buildings Survey program.</p><br>
<p>The Winnibigoshish Lake Dam is a dam at the outlet of Lake Winnibigoshish into the Mississippi River in Minnesota, United States. The dam crosses the county line between Cass County and Itasca County, and lies within the Leech Lake Indian Reservation. The first dam on the site was built by the United States Army Corps of Engineers from 1881 to 1884 to regulate the flow of water on the Upper Mississippi River. A constant flow was desired by loggers, fur traders, and millers downstream at St. Anthony Falls. The current structure was built in 1899. Lake Winnibigoshish is Minnesota&#39;s fifth largest lake, at 67,000 acre.</p><br>
<h2>Damage caused by the dam</h2><br>
<p>At the time of the construction of the original dam, the region was inhabited almost exclusively by Ojibwa Indians, who had lived on the shores of this part of the river for many generations, as documented by the explorer, Henry Schoolcraft. The USA Army Corps of Engineers used 2,000,000 board-feet (4720 cubic meters) of pine for the dam and related buildings, wiping out large sections of conifer forests. Along the shores were the Ojibwas hay fields, maple trees, gardens, cranberry marshes, wild rice marshes, villages, and burial mounds. A staple in their diet was fish, which they caught with nets placed in the swift and shallow river current. Construction of the dam raised the water level by 14 ft, not only obliterating the natives homes and history, but also wiping out their fisheries. Recent archeological research has shown that the burial mounds and ceramic fragments dated from 700&ndash;1000 ce. The construction of this dam was a significant milestone in the historical record of white, Western European settlers, Christian missionaries, and commercial interests eradicating the indigenous population from most of Minnesota.</p><br>
<h2>Replacement dam</h2><br>
<p>The 1899 dam, which is in the National Register of Historic Places, replaced the 1884 dam, substituting concrete for wooden components. By the 1920s, Minnesotans were flocking to the area in search of pristine camping, fishing, and hunting grounds. The Northlands Camp built a hotel, cabins, and a store for the throngs of tourists. Today, scores of locks and dams effectively control the water level on the Upper Mississippi River, aiding navigation and averting most adverse flooding, and the tourism continues to be a significant contributor to the region&#39;s economy.</p><br>
<p>The Bizzell Memorial Library, known also as Bizzell Library, is a five-story brick structure located at the University of Oklahoma in Norman, Oklahoma. It is an elaborate Collegiate Gothic or Cherokee Gothic building, designed by the architecture firm Layton Hicks & Forsyth and erected in 1928 during the administration of OU&#39;s fifth president, William Bennett Bizzell.</p><br>
<h2>Building history</h2><br>
<p>When the university opened in 1890, the university library was located in the only campus building, which was destroyed by fire in 1903. A new library was constructed and opened in 1904, but the university&#39;s needs and collections quickly outgrew a space that was intended to last for decades. The Oklahoma Legislature appropriated $75,000 in 1917 to construct yet another library building that could be expanded in the future, but subsequent legislatures did not appropriate necessary funds to allow the project to move forward.</p><br>
<p>In 1927, state officials budgeted $500,000 for construction of a new, three-story library. New facilities included a "treasure room" to hold rare books and special collections and separate spaces for graduate and undergraduate work. A reading room, known today as the Great Reading Room, held the bulk of the 105,000 volumes the university then owned. The new library was dedicated on February 21, 1929.</p><br>
<p>Under George Lynn Cross, the University&#39;s seventh president, a 1958 addition effectively tripled the size of the structure. After a generous donation by Doris W. Neustadt, a 1982 addition was completed during the William S. Banowsky administration.</p><br>
<p>Presently, Bizzell serves as the flagship research library in the state of Oklahoma and of the University&#39;s system of eight libraries on the Norman campus that hold a combined 5 million volumes. Bizzell also houses the University Libraries administration; the History of Science, Nichols Rare Books, Bass Business and Bizzell Bible Special Collections; and the University of Oklahoma School of Library and Information Studies. The University of Oklahoma Library System is a member of the Association of Research Librarieso.</p><br>
<h2>Desegregation landmark</h2><br>
<p>The library is historically significant for its association with the racial desegregation court case of George McLaurin, a retired black professor who applied to the university to pursue a doctorate in education. McLaurin was at first denied admission to the university solely on the basis of race, in accordance with Oklahoma law at the time. After a court ruling, he was admitted, but under the separate but equal doctrine he was given a desk in the mezzanine of this building, rather than being allowed use of the regular reading room. He appealed the segregation up to the Supreme Court, in McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents for Higher Education. In this, and a companion cases, Sweatt v. Painter, the Supreme Court limited Plessy v. Ferguson. The decisions were precedents for the more famous Brown v. Board of Education case in 1954.</p><br>
<p>For its association with segregation and the court case overturning it, the building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2001.</p><br>
<p>The Croswell Opera House is a historic theater located at 129 East Maumee Street in Adrian, Michigan. It is recognized as the oldest theater in the state and among the oldest continuously operating theaters in the United States. The theater was designated as a Michigan Historic Site on March 2, 1976 and later added to the National Register of Historic Places as the Adrian Union Hall-Croswell Opera House on April 18, 1985.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early history</h3><br>
<p>The Croswell Opera House, or Adrian Union Hall as it was originally called, was completed in 1866. It was financed by the Adrian Union Hall Company, whose stockholders included future Michigan governor Charles Croswell. Its first public event, taking place on March 19, was a lecture by temperance advocate John Bartholomew Gough.</p><br>
<p>The hall served many functions during its early years. It hosted concerts, lectures, festivals, and theatrical performances by both traveling troupes and amateur local groups. Famous speakers who visited the opera house included Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Frederick Douglass, Thomas Nast, Henry Ward Beecher, and Ralph Waldo Emerson. During the 19th century it hosted performances by Edwin Booth, John Philip Sousa, and Buffalo Bill Cody; the early 20th century saw appearances by Mrs. Patrick Campbell and Maude Adams.</p><br>
<p>The Croswell has gone by many different names. During its first few years of operation, the local newspaper usually referred to it as "New Hall." Around 1869, it started to be called the Opera House. When Charles Croswell retired as governor in 1881, he returned to Adrian and began buying up shares in the Adrian Union Hall Company, eventually becoming the majority shareholder; he then tasked his son, Charles Croswell Jr., with managing the theater. At this time it became known as Croswells Opera House. Charles Croswell Jr. gave up the managers job after his father&#39;s death in 1886, but although the possessive was dropped, the name stuck.</p><br>
<p>A new lobby was added to the original building in 1882. In 1885, the theaters first electric lights were installed — just two of them — and the entire theater was outfitted for electricity in 1895. The lighting apparatus was designed by Harry A. Fee, who is better known for creating Hidden Lake Gardens in nearby Franklin Township. In 1896, to meet the demands of that eras increasingly elaborate theatrical productions, the stage was expanded and the roof above the stage raised.</p><br>
<h3>The movie theater years</h3><br>
<p>In the early 20th century, the Croswell faced increasing competition from movie theaters. It was purchased in 1919 by Harry Angell and Robert Codd, who undertook two major renovations. The first, in 1919, converted the Croswell into a movie house. A long arcade-style lobby was added to the front of the building, as was a projection booth. Then, in 1921, the original balcony was torn out and replaced and the entire auditorium remodeled. It was during this renovation that the Croswell&#39;s interior took on its modern appearance.</p><br>
<p>The Croswell was leased in 1927 by W.S. Butterfield Theatres, which would continue to operate it for the next 40 years. It was wired for sound in 1929; the first talking picture shown was Weary River.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, the Croswell raised more than $1 million for the war effort by holding "war bond premieres." The management would bring in a popular new film, and tickets were not for sale; only a newly purchased war bond would entitle a person to admission. Charity toy drives and children&#39;s food matinees were also common.</p><br>
<p>By the 1960s, however, the Croswell faced increasing competition from drive-in theaters and television. A theater with about 1,000 seats — the Croswell&#39;s capacity at the time — but only one screen was impractical to operate. In March 1967, the Butterfield chain announced it would not renew its lease, and owner Harry Angell put the building up for sale. The last movie of the Butterfield era, The Sound of Music, closed on September 16, 1967.</p><br>
<h3>Revival of live theater</h3><br>
<p>With Butterfields decision to pull out, the Croswell was in danger of being demolished. But Charlie Hickman, the owner of local manufacturing company Brazeway, stepped forward to buy the building, and a new nonprofit organization was chartered to take over its operation. The newly revived Croswell staged its first summer season of live theater in 1968, beginning with a production of Neil Simons Barefoot in the Park. This was followed by Summer and Smoke, Oliver!, and Once More, With Feeling.</p><br>
<p>That fall, a new group, the Croswell Players, was formed to continue offering theater during the fall, winter and spring. Eventually, the Croswell&#39;s summer and winter theater programs would merge.</p><br>
<p>In 1970, the tradition of bringing high-profile speakers to Adrian to speak at the Croswell was revived. Speakers in the theater&#39;s Town Hall series, which ran from 1970 to 1996, included Gloria Steinem, Helen Thomas, Arianna Huffington, Ralph Nader, Julian Bond, Art Linkletter, Jeane Dixon, Bella Abzug, Kitty Carlisle, Charlton Heston, and "Dear Abby" author Pauline Phillips.</p><br>
<p>A capital campaign to renovate the theater was announced in May 2015, with changes to include new public spaces, more restrooms, Americans with Disabilities Act improvements, and electrical and other infrastructure upgrades. Construction began in 2016 and the theater reopened in May 2017.</p><br>
<p>The 2017 season marked the Croswell&#39;s 50th summer as a producing theater.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Croswell was originally designed by Horatio Nelson White. In 1865, while the theater was still under construction, a correspondent for the Detroit Free Press visited Adrian and gave this description:During this season, notwithstanding the high wages, cost of lumber and all building materials, there have been many fine buildings, dwellinghouses and stores erected. The first one particularly attracting attention on entering the city from the depot is “Union Hall,” a large brick structure erected and owned by a joint-stock company at a cost of $35,000. This building is located on the lower end of Maumee street, and fronts directly on it. It is one hundred and fifteen feet and ten inches deep, by sixty-four feet and four inches wide, and built of such a height that the main hall will finish thirty-two feet in the clear. The principal audience room is at some little distance from the street, and is reached through an arched passage-way, on each side of which is an elegant and commodious store. It is eighty feet in depth and sixty-three feet wide, with a gallery on three sides containing three rows of seats, calculated to seat with comfort fifteen hundred people. In the erection of the gallery a new feature is introduced, which, by means of trusses, braces and iron ties, makes it self-supporting, and entirely does away with the necessity of columns or ungainly brackets to support it. There is a large stage, 30x32 feet, which is fitted up for theatrical exhibitions, with scenery, dressing-rooms, &c. In the arrangement of the scenery, some new ideas are carried out, several of the side scenes folding up, while the principal fines, five in number, are suspended from large cylinders overhead, being hoisted and lowered by means of machinery, completely doing away with the squeaking, rattling and confusion generally attendant upon the shifting and sliding of the different pieces, and as a whole scene is raised or lowered at once, the ridiculous gap often seen in the center of an elegant painting is obviated. In the basement are the furnaces for heating the building, a large storeroom capable of containing all the seats of the hall, when it is cleared for the benefit of those tripping the “light fantastic toe,” and a large dining room, which extends the entire length of the building. The ceiling and walls are to be frescoed, and if finished according to design, will present an elegant and tasteful appearance, reflecting much credit on the designers and owners, and the city. In the erection of the structure there is no attempt at the gaudy or gorgeous, everything in and about it is plain, sold and substantial. It was designed by H. N. White, of Syracuse, New York, and erected under the supervision of Mr. Smith, a master-builder of this city.Writing some time later, local historian R.I. Bonner reported that the Croswell was patterned after Wieting Hall in Syracuse.</p><br>
<p>The physical appearance of the Croswell changed several times over the course of the 19th century. A 14-foot addition was built on the front of the theater in 1882, and the stage roof was raised in 1896 to accommodate more elaborate scenery.</p><br>
<p>The 1919 and 1921 renovations were directed by architect J.C. Brompton, who also designed the Riviera Theatre in Three Rivers. In 1919, a projection booth was built onto the front of the building and a long arcade-style lobby was added; previously, patrons had to walk down a long alley from Maumee Street and wait outdoors before a show. In 1921, the original horseshoe-shaped balcony was torn out and replaced and the entire interior of the theater was redesigned.</p><br>
<p>Some of the theaters distinctive features include ornate plaster detailing around the entire auditorium, two tall organ towers on either side of the stage with decorate urns built into them, and large panels on the walls reminiscent of the ones that can be seen in Bromptons RIviera Theatre.</p><br>
<p>From 1921 until the 1970s, only minor changes were made to the Croswells interior. In 1976, an addition was built on the back of the theater for a scene shop and offices. Two buildings on either side of the Croswells front lobby were purchased in 1978 and 1979 and added to the theater, becoming space for rehearsals, offices and an art gallery.</p><br>
<p>The theater was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>The Croswell is a producing theater and operates year-round, staging six to eight full-scale musicals per year, along with straight plays, children&#39;s theater, and occasional concerts. It is owned by the Croswell Opera House and Fine Arts Association, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit. Its artistic director since 2009 is Jere Righter.</p><br>
<h3>Musical theater</h3><br>
<p>The majority of shows produced at the Croswell are musicals. A live orchestra, rather than recorded music, is employed for all of the theater&#39;s full-length musicals.</p><br>
<h3>Original work</h3><br>
<p>In addition to established works, the Croswell has premiered several new plays and musicals, including:</p><br>
<p>A Dragon&#39;s Tale, a musical by Michael and Betsy Lackey (1985).</p><br>
<p>The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, a musical by Don Wilson and Dave Zabriskie (2004).</p><br>
<p>Breakfast at Frannies, a play by Terry Hissong that was named one of Writers Digest magazine&#39;s top plays of the year (2009).</p><br>
<p>Obsession, a musical retelling of the Frankenstein story, by Michael and Betsy Lackey (2011).</p><br>
<p>The Family Digs, a play by Terry Hissong (2017).</p><br>
<h3>Educational programs</h3><br>
<p>The Croswell offers a number of educational programs, including summer performance and technical theater camps, an all-area high school musical, paid summer internships for college students, and a variety of children&#39;s performances.</p><br>
<h2>Prominent alumni</h2><br>
<p>Theater professionals with a Croswell background include:</p><br>
<p>Tobin Ost, scenic designer who was nominated for a Tony Award in 2012 for his work on Newsies.</p><br>
<p>Leah Crocetto, opera singer, a 2010 winner of the Metropolitan Opera National Council Auditions and 2009 winner of the José Iturbi International Music Competition.</p><br>
<p>Shonn Wiley, a member of the Chicago cast of Jersey Boys and founding member of Under the Streetlamp.</p><br>
<p>Wyndcliffe is the ruin of a historic mansion near Rhinebeck in Dutchess County, New York. The records at the Library of Congress state that the brick mansion was originally named Rhinecliff and constructed in 1853 in the Norman style. The mansion was built for New York City socialite Elizabeth Schermerhorn Jones  as a weekend and summer residence. The design is attributed to local architect George Veitch. A master mason, John Byrd, executed the highly varied ornamental brickwork using only rectangular and few molded bricks.</p><br>
<p>Writer Edith Wharton was a frequent childhood visitor; it influenced her 1929 novel Hudson River Bracketed. Wharton called the house "Rhinecliff" (after the nearby hamlet of Rhinecliff) in her 1933 memoirs A Backwards Glance; contrary to popular rumor, the hamlet was not named after the house.</p><br>
<p>In 1886, the mansion and land was sold by the executors of the will of Elizabeth S. Jones to Andrew Finck (1829-1890) for $25,000. Wyndcliffe was later known as Linden Hall or Finck Castle, for those subsequent owners. Andrew Finck was a New York City brewer whose son August Finck (1854-1905) and grandson August Finck Jr. (1879-1915) operated one of the larger breweries in New York City. A. Finck & Sons Brewery, 320-332 W. 39th St, Manhattan, NYC, produced Enterprise, a light lager beer from 1870 to 1911. Andrew Fincks nephew, John Henry Finck (1843-1881) operated a prosperous Feed and Flour business at 600 N. 11th Ave, Manhattan, NYC.</p><br>
<p>Upon the death of Jacob Finck (1816-1880) (Johns father/Andrews brother), Andrew Finck, his son August Finck Sr, and grandson August Finck Jr were named executors of the Jacob Finck estate. They immediately closed the Feed and Flour business, leaving John Finck unemployed and penniless with a wife and 4 small children. Several months later, on 2 May 1881, John Finck committed suicide by hanging himself between two railroad cars.</p><br>
<p>The mansion passed from Andrew to his son, August, in 1901 and then to his grandson, August Jr. Theodore Finck (1883-1923) purchased Wyndcliffe from his brother, August Jr&#39;s, estate in 1919 for $24,000. Theodore died in the mansion in 1923, identifying his daughter Anna Wolf Finck Rice (1879-1963) in his Last Will as his sole devisee. The mansion and 31.8 acres passed to Nissan S. Hanoka, Rebecca Hanoka and Mrs. Victori Hazen in 1927 for $100 plus a $5,000 mortgage. In 1934, the property was awarded back to Anna Wolf Rice for $1,117.94 at foreclosure auction, and then passed through several subsequent owners from 1936 onward.</p><br>
<p>The mansion was abandoned sometime around 1950. Originally situated on 80 acres including waterfront access to the Hudson River, the property was eventually reduced to 2.5 acres. Portions of the mansion have collapsed after over 70 years of abandonment. In 2003 the mansion was sold and the new owner erected a security fence around the property. However the announced plans to restore the house never came to fruition. Images taken around that time showed that major sections of the second story had collapsed.</p><br>
<p>In September 2016 the house was sold for $120,000 at auction. The new buyer applied for, and was granted, a permit to demolish the remaining structure but did not carry that out. The structure was again sold in 2017 to a Manhattan-based developer. In December 2022 a local news site reported that the developer had hired a structural engineer and submitted an emergency stabilization plan with Rhinebeck Planning Board.</p><br>
<h2>Photos</h2><br>
<p>Edgewater is an architecturally significant, early 19th-century house located near the hamlet of Barrytown in Dutchess County, New York, United States. Built about 1824, the house is a contributing property to the Hudson River Historic District. Edgewater&#39;s principal architectural feature is a monumental colonnade of six Doric columns, looking out across a lawn to the Hudson River. Writing in 1942, the historians Eberlein and Hubbard described Edgewater as an exemplar of "the combined dignity and subtle grace that marked the houses of the Federal Era."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>1820–1853 (Livingston Family)</h3><br>
<p>The history of Edgewater dates back to December 23, 1819, when Bishop Hobart of New York City married "Lowndes Brown, esq. of Charleston S.C. and Miss Margaretta Livingston, daughter of John R. Livingston, esq." The groom, Rawlins Lowndes Brown (1792–1852), was a graduate of Yale College, class of 1806, and had been (as recently as September 1819 when he resigned his commission) Captain Lowndes Brown in charge of Company G stationed on Governors Island.</p><br>
<p>In 1824, possibly as a belated wedding gift, John R. Livingston (1755-1851) gave the 250-acre Edgewater property to his daughter and son-in-law, and the house may have been built about that time.</p><br>
<p>After the death of her father in 1851 and her husband in 1852, Margaret Livingston sold Edgewater to Robert Donaldson, after which she moved to London to live with her daughter.</p><br>
<h3>1853–1902 (Donaldson Family)</h3><br>
<p>The New York financier and aesthete Robert Donaldson Jr. (1800–1872) bought Edgewater in 1853. Donaldson engaged the architect Alexander Jackson Davis (1803–1892) to add an octagonal library wing, and to clad the brick house with stucco textured to resemble brownstone. Davis also designed two gatehouses.</p><br>
<p>Robert Donaldson died in 1872, and as of 1880, his son, William (1842-1906), and his daughters Elizabeth (1842-1897) and Isabel (1846-1931) were living in the house with Isabella&#39;s husband (and cousin), Robert D. Bronson (1845-1912), and five servants.</p><br>
<p>In his 1894 guide to the Hudson River, Wallace Bruce wrote that Edgewater, "formerly the Donaldson home," was now owned by Edward Clark Goodwin, but Goodwin must have been renting the house, for in 1902, the executor of the Donaldson estate sold the house and south gatehouse to Elizabeth Chapman (1866–1937).</p><br>
<h3>1902–1917 (Elizabeth Chanler Chapman)</h3><br>
<p>Elizabeth Chapman was the second wife of the essayist John Jay Chapman. Born Elizabeth Astor Winthrop Chanler, the daughter of John Winthrop Chanler and Margaret Astor Ward, she grew up at Rokeby, a nearby house. Although Elizabeth Chapman never occupied Edgewater, her husband used it as a retreat during the winters of 1903–04 and 1904–05. In 1905, they moved into a new house designed by the architect Charles A. Platt, built on the hill above Edgewater and known as Sylvania. They used Edgewater as a guest house for family. In July 1906, her brother, the artist Robert Winthrop Chanler, was living there when lightning struck a nearby elm tree, causing a fire within the house that was quickly extinguished. Chapman&#39;s mother-in-law, Eleanor Jay Chapman (1839–1921), a great-granddaughter of Supreme Court Chief Justice John Jay, lived at Edgewater from 1910 until at least 1914.</p><br>
<h3>1917–1946 (Conrad Chapman)</h3><br>
<p>On March 3, 1917, Elizabeth Chapman recorded the deed by which she sold Edgewater (not including either gate house) to her stepson Conrad Chapman (1896–1989) for a price uncertain but stated on the deed as $1.00, which is only standard boiler-plate language. It is unlikely, however, that he spent much time there during the next twenty years: The day before the sale, Chapman left Harvard College in order to join the Navy, in which he served until at least April 1920. According to Chapman&#39;s son, Geoffrey W. Chapman:</p><br>
<p>My father...had served in the Navy in World War I, had returned to Harvard afterwards to get his degree, and had then gone on to Oxford for a couple of</p><br>
<p>years, where his roommate at Oxford was Lester Pearson, who was later Prime Minister of Canada. He went on to get a doctorate at the Sorbonne in Paris in Byzantine history, and then became a headmaster of a school in France at a school for the sons of American diplomats and businessmen living in Europe. The school folded after a couple of years so he founded another school of his own, which didn’t last very long either. He came back to this country in the late ‘30s and had a series of jobs, although no real profession, apart from that of a scholar generally, because there was a lot of family money on both sides.</p><br>
<p>In England, on August 25, 1937, Chapman married Judith Daphne Kemp (1906–1999), who according to their son:</p><br>
<p>...was English-born and had been what the English call a governess in her early adult years. She married my father after they had known each other for just a few months in 1937, and then came to this country.</p><br>
<p>The couple traveled to America on the SS Bremen, leaving Southampton and arriving in New York on October 7. By 1940, Chapman and his wife were living in Boston. According to Chapman&#39;s son, "We had a nice townhouse on Beacon Hill in Boston, smack in the middle of the city; one block below the famous Louisburg Square."</p><br>
<p>After they returned to America, the Chapmans were said to have spent time at Edgewater and to have made several improvements to the house, including the addition of an upstairs bathroom.</p><br>
<p>In 1946, Conrad Chapman sold Edgewater to Laura M. Taylor. While the deed states that the property was sold for $1.00, that is likely incorrect as that amount stated on the deed is normal boiler-plate language to indicate that some consideration was provided. He died in Boston in 1989.</p><br>
<h3>1946–1950 (Laura M. Taylor)</h3><br>
<p>Laura Scantlin married Robert Kirby Taylor at Pittsburg in 1907, and as of 1940, they were living at 444 East 58th Street in New York City, where Robert Taylor worked as a "woolen merchant." In November 1944, they were in Cold Spring, New York, when their son&#39;s house was destroyed by fire. Sometime later, they leased Edgewater where Robert Taylor died in June 1946. One month later, Laura Taylor bought Edgewater, holding it until 1950 when she sold to the writer Gore Vidal.</p><br>
<h3>1950–1969 (Gore Vidal)</h3><br>
<p>Gore Vidal (1925–2012) bought Edgewater at the recommendation of his friend, Alice Astor Bouverie. According to his memoir "Palimpsest"(1995), he paid $16,000, with a $6,000 down-payment and giving a $10,000 mortgage. In 1960, he ran as the Democratic candidate for Congress for the 29th Congressional District of New York State using Edgewater as his campaign headquarters. He lost to the Republican candidate J. Ernest Wharton by a margin of 57 percent to 43 percent. Among Vidal&#39;s supporters were Eleanor Roosevelt, Paul Newman and Joanne Woodward, all of whom spoke on his behalf.</p><br>
<p>In November 1966, Vidal, now living in Italy, rented Edgewater to William vanden Heuvel (1930–2021), a lawyer, aide to Robert F. Kennedy, and husband of the writer Jean Stein (1934–2017). In 1969, Vidal sold Edgewater to New York financier Richard Jenrette for $125,000.</p><br>
<h3>1969–2018 (Richard H. Jenrette)</h3><br>
<p>When Richard Jenrette (1929–2018) bought Edgewater in 1969, the house sat on only 2.69 acres. During his tenure, Jenrette completed a restoration of the house, located and returned to the house much of its original furniture and art, and bought back much of the acreage (although not the two gate houses). He also built two new buildings, a classical pavilion (1997) and a pool house (1997). Jenrette wrote about these additions in his memoir, Adventures with Old Houses:</p><br>
<p>In recent years, I&#39;ve begun making more of my own architectural imprint on the Edgewater property. This past year I added a small neo-classical guest house, built on a point of land across the lagoon to the north of Edgewater—far enough away not to compete with the main house. Designed by Michael Dwyer of New York, the guest house is a small Grecian temple with four columns of the Doric order framing a large porch looking downriver. Viewed from the front porch of Edgewater across the lagoon, the new structure serves as an architectural folly extending the sweep of the landscape to the north.</p><br>
<p>Michael Dwyer also relocated the swimming pool and added a charming pool house, again in classical style with four Doric columns along the side of the pool. The effect is quite Roman—rather like a small corner of Hadrian&#39;s Villa. From guest house to pool house and back to the main house provides a scenic one-mile roundabout walk, mostly along the winding riverbank.</p><br>
<h3>2018–Present (RHJF)</h3><br>
<p>Edgewater is currently owned by the Richard Hampton Jenrette Foundation, created by Jenrette in 1993.</p><br>
<h2>Maps</h2><br>
<h2>Drawings</h2><br>
<h2>Photographs</h2><br>
<h2>Further reading</h2><br>
<p>Pieter Estersohn. Life Along the Hudson (New York, NY: Rizzoli, 2018).</p><br>
<p>Jane Garmey. Private Gardens of the Hudson Valley (New York, NY: Monacelli Press, 2013).</p><br>
<p>David Schuyler. Sanctified Landscape: Writers, Artists, and the Hudson River Valley, 1820-1902. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012).</p><br>
<p>Richard H. Jenrette. More Adventures with Old Houses (New York, NY: Classical American Homes Preservation Trust, 2010).</p><br>
<p>Michael Middleton Dwyer, editor, with a preface by Mark Rockefeller. Great Houses of the Hudson River (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, published in association with Historic Hudson Valley, 2001).</p><br>
<p>Richard H. Jenrette. Adventures with Old Houses (Charleston, SC: Wyrick & Co., 2000).</p><br>
<p>Fred Kaplan. Gore Vidal: A Biography, (Doubleday, 1999).</p><br>
<p>Jean Bradley Anderson. Carolinian on the Hudson: the Life of Robert Donaldson (Raleigh, NC: Historic Preservation Foundation of North Carolina, 1996).</p><br>
<p>Gore Vidal. Palimpsest: A Memoir (New York, NY: Random House, 1995).</p><br>
<p>William Nathaniel Banks, Jr. "Living with Antiques: Edgewater on the Hudson River," The Magazine Antiques, vol. 121, no. 6 (June 1982), pp. 1400–1410.</p><br>
<p>Harold Donaldson Eberlin and Cortlandt Van Dyke Hubbard. Historic Houses of the Hudson Valley (New York, NY: Architectural Book Publishing Co., Inc., 1942).</p><br>
<p>The Alfred and Olive Thorpe Lustron House is a historic Lustron house built in 1950, located at 1001 Northeast 2nd Street in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>Its original occupants were Alfred and Olive Thorpe, who purchased it apparently from a Lustron Corporation distributor, the Craftsman Home Corporation, in 1951. On November 1, 2007, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>It is a two-bedroom "Westchester Deluxe Model 2" example.</p><br>
<p>The Bridger Trail, also known as the Bridger Road and Bridger Immigrant Road, was an overland route connecting the Oregon Trail to the gold fields of Montana. Gold was discovered in Virginia City, Montana in 1863, prompting settlers and prospectors to find a trail to travel from central Wyoming to Montana. In 1863, John Bozeman and John Jacobs scouted the Bozeman Trail, which was a direct route to the Montana gold fields through the Powder River Country. At the time the region was controlled by the Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho, who stepped up their raids in response to the stream of settlers along the trail.</p><br>
<p>In 1864 the commandant of Fort Laramie, Colonel William O. Collins, concerned about the hostilities along the Bozeman Trail, asked Jim Bridger to lead a party of settlers from Denver on a new route to the mines through the Big Horn Basin along the western edge of the Big Horn Mountains. In 1859, Bridger had guided a topographical expedition through the area, and knew the region well. The road ran approximately 425 mi, paralleling the Bozeman Trail and running to the west of the Bighorn Mountains in the lands of the Crow and Shoshone people. In all, 10 wagon trains made the trip in spring and summer of 1864, two of them guided personally by Bridger. The following year, hostilities along the Bozeman Trail had escalated to the point where Major General Grenville M. Dodge ordered Brigadier General Patrick E. Connor to lead the first Powder River Expedition to try to end the raids along the trail. Connor chose Bridger as one of his guides, and Bridger spent the next few years guiding various military excursions into the Powder River Country and never again led settlers along the Bridger Trail.</p><br>
<h2>Route</h2><br>
<p>The route left the Oregon Trail at Red Buttes, near Fort Caspar in central Wyoming, and headed in a northwestern direction. The trail crossed Badwater Creek near present-day Lysite, Wyoming, and followed Bridger Creek into the Bridger Mountains located just to the west of the southern end of the Bighorn Mountains. After cresting the range, the trail led down along the Kirby Creek drainage to where it meets the Bighorn River near the current town of Lucerne. From there, the trail turned north and follows the Bighorn River. At the mouth of the Nowood River the trail turned northeast and headed toward the Greybull River. After that crossing, the settlers forded the Shoshone River near Powell and continued north into Montana. After traveling through Bridger Canyon, the trail met the Clark&#39;s Fork Yellowstone River and followed it downstream past the present day town of Bridger, Montana, finally joining the Bozeman Trail at its confluence with Rock Creek, about 10 miles south of present-day Laurel, Montana. The two trails continued together west across Montana to the Virginia City gold mines. The trip could be made in as little as 34 days, though most of the wagon trains took some time to prospect the streams along the route.</p><br>
<p>As compared to the Bozeman Trail, the Bridger Trail was much less suited for wagon trains as grazing and water along the route were limited. However, in 1864, the trail is credited with handling 25% of the total growth in Virginia City&#39;s population. At least ten wagon trains used the trail in 1864, the largest being composed of 129 wagons and carrying some 350 to 450 people.</p><br>
<h2>Remnants</h2><br>
<p>Few remnants of the trail remain today. Some visible tracks can be seen in Fremont County and Hot Springs, County. There are two sets of remaining carvings of settlers names: one on a sandstone cliff face near Bridger Creek, and the other at Signature Rock between Byron, Wyoming and Cowley, Wyoming.</p><br>
<p>The Dry Creek Crossing and Waltman Crossing site were placed on the National Register of Historic Places on January 17, 1975.</p><br>
<p>The Henry Delamater House is a historic house located at 44 Montgomery Street  in Rhinebeck, Dutchess County, New York.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>It was designed by architect Alexander Jackson Davis and built in 1844. It is a two-story, Gothic Revival style wood frame dwelling sheathed in board and batten siding. It has a hipped roof intersected by a front gable roof and features an ornamental verandah and ornamental pointed arch with two lancet arches. Also on the property is a contributing carriage house.</p><br>
<p>It was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on May 7, 1973. It is also a contributing property in the Rhinebeck Village Historic District.</p><br>
<p>The Windsor Hotel, Ascend Hotel Collection at 125 West Lamar Street in Americus, Georgia was built in 1892 to attract winter visitors from the northeastern United States. The five-story Queen Anne hotel was designed by a Swedish-born architect, Gottfried Leonard Norrman, working in Atlanta. It featured a hundred rooms and a three-story atrium. It closed in the early 1970s, but later reopened with 53 guest rooms.</p><br>
<p>The Windsor is a contributing property within the National Register Americus Historic District. Vice-President Thomas R. Marshall gave a speech from the balcony in 1917, and the soon-to-be New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt spoke in the dining room in 1928. Former President Jimmy Carter (born in nearby Plains, Georgia) has been a supporter of the hotel since its reopening.</p><br>
<p>Blind Department Building and Dow Hall, State School for the Blind were two buildings that were part of the Minnesota State Academy for the Blind, a public school administered by the state in Faribault, Minnesota, United States. The two structures, Dow Hall and the Blind Department Building, were significant components of a system of state-administered special education for the physically and mentally disabled segments of the population. Both buildings have been demolished, and their listing was removed from the National Register of Historic Places in 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Blind Department building</h2><br>
<p>Alexander Faribault moved into his impressive Second Empire home on the east side of the Straight River in 1856. In 1874, the home was sold to the state to house the State School for the Blind.</p><br>
<h2>Dow Hall</h2><br>
<p>Dow Hall (1883) was built specifically to house the School for the Blind. The buildings construction was indicative not only that education was worthwhile for people with disabilities, but also that differing disabilities required programs tailored to the students specific needs.</p><br>
<p>The building was demolished some time after 1996 due to potential safety hazards. The legislation authorizing the demolition specified that a historical marker must be placed at the site with artifacts of the historic building. The stonework of the ground floor of the foundation is visible at the site.</p><br>
<p>The Maurice Crumpacker House is the former residence of Maurice E. Crumpacker, a popular Oregon attorney and United States Congressman in the 1920s.</p><br>
<p>The house was built by Portland architect Wade Hampton Pipes in 1923, and is located in the Dunthorpe neighborhood of Multnomah County, Oregon, just outside the Portland municipal boundary. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1992.</p><br>
<p>The Palms is an apartment building located at 1001 East Jefferson Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. It was one of the first buildings in the United States to use reinforced concrete as one of its major construction materials. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>The six-story apartment building was initially built as a high-class residence between 1901 and 1903 at a cost of about $80,000. However, the historical importance of this building lies in its construction. The building was designed by the architectural firm of George D. Mason and Albert Kahn Associates, who used reinforced concrete as one of the major construction materials&mdash;one of the first buildings in the nation constructed in such fashion. The technique of using reinforced concrete was not fully developed until Julius Kahn, brother of Albert, developed the "Kahn System" of reinforcing the concrete and formed the Trussed Concrete Steel Company in Detroit to produce the steel bar that was developed for this system. In 1905, Building No. 10 of the Packard Plant was built using the new Kahn System.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Palms and Book families were the investors in the construction of this building; it was named after Francis Palms, who lived in the nearby Croul-Palms House. The building is constructed in a "U" shape, with an exterior of solid masonry faced in limestone. The façade is symmetrical, with octagonal towers at the corners. The original floor plans called for apartments that occupied an entire wing of the building, consisting of a double parlor in the front and a dining room with fireplace to the back separated by bedrooms, libraries, baths and more. However, in the 1930s the building was divided into smaller apartments. Much of the original details still exist on the interior and exterior. The building was listed on the State Register in 1979, the National Register in 1985, and received Local Historic District designation in 1980.</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p>"Palms Apartments," City of Detroit Planning and Development Department, 1980</p><br>
<p>The Isaac Meason House, also known as Mount Braddock, is a historic house located in Dunbar Township, Fayette County, Pennsylvania. Completed in 1802, it is one of only two surviving Palladian style stone mansions from the period in the United States. Isaac Meason, for whom it was built, was an American Revolutionary War hero and early political power broker in the area, becoming the richest person in Fayette County due to his interest in iron furnaces and possession of enslaved people. The house was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1990 for its architecture.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The Isaac Meason House stands outside the hamlet of Mount Braddock, roughly midway between Connellsville and Uniontown at the southern end of Cellurale Drive off United States Route 119. It is prominently sited at the top of a local hill, with a circular stone wall with a gate at its center providing access to its front yard. It is a -story structure built out of locally quarried sandstone with an ashlar finish, and is built following a classical Palladian villa pattern. It has a central main block, flanked symmetrically by narrow hyphens connecting to single-story wings. Small outbuildings are then symmetrically placed beyond the outer wings, with the main driveway passing through the northern gap. The central bays of the center block on both the front and rear elevations are topped by a gabled pediment.</p><br>
<p>Little is known about Isaac Meason, beyond his origins in Virginia and his success in the Pennsylvania iron industry; he established an iron foundry in Uniontown in 1791, believed to be the first commercially successful operation in the region. This house was built for him by Adam Wilson, a builder about whom little is also known, but is believed to have been brought to the United States from Scotland by Meason. It took about five years to build, and was completed in 1802. While there are a number of formal Palladian-style mansion houses built in the Federal period that survive, most only have a five-part plan, lacking the outbuildings, or have outbuildings built of wood if the main house is masonry. This house is, along with "Mount Airy" in Warsaw, Virginia, one of two that have the full suite of seven elements executed entirely in stone.</p><br>
<p>The house remained in the Meason family until 1887.</p><br>
<p>The Spade Ranch is a large cattle ranch located in the Sandhills of western Nebraska between the towns of Gordon and Ellsworth. Founded in 1888 by Bartlett Richards, the ranch was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<p>A beef ranching operation in the Nebraska Sandhills, the Spade Ranch, encompasses land in both Sheridan and Cherry Counties. Founders Bartlett Richards and William Comstock successfully managed the ranch into the early twentieth century. At its peak size in 1905 with open range grazing and ready markets for cattle, the Spade, encompassed over 500,000 acre with a herd of 60,000 cattle. Under the direction of the Bixby family, associates of Richards and Comstock since 1908 and owners of the ranch since 1923, the Spade Ranch has continued to produce quality beef cattle as part of Nebraska&#39;s large beef industry. That the ranges remain cattle country today attests to the vision of early Nebraska Sandhills ranchers.</p><br>
<p>The Spade Ranch is named for the cattle brand that founders Bartlett Richards and William Comstock used to mark their cattle. The brand resembles an Ace of Spades on playing cards. The Spade brand is still in use as the ranch brand today.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Foundation and growth</h3><br>
<p>Nebraska&#39;s early beef cattle industry first developed between the Platte Rivers and along the valleys of the Republican River and South Loup River. H.L. Newman a wealthy St. Louis banker and stock-raiser and brother E.S. Newman established headquarters in 1878 at the mouth of the Antelope Creek, 12 mi south-east of the present town of Gordon, Nebraska, and range along the Niobrara River covered an area of 30 by 65 mi with 15,000 head of cattle. John Bratt, the Keystone Cattle Company, and the Bosler Brothers had penetrated along the south rim of the Sandhills, but it was not until the spring of 1879 that the economic importance of the Sandhills were discovered. That year storm-driven cattle from the Newman Ranch disappeared South into the Sandhills area previously avoided by cattlemen. An expedition was organized, with ranch foreman Billy Irwin in charge, to venture into the Sandhills and round-up the scattered cattle. During the roundup of those cattle other wild cattle were found; the wild cattle had grown fat even though untended during several winters. On the fourth week out and running low on provisions, the Newman cowboys camped along a lake where all they had to eat was bean soup. They called the lake Bean Soup Lake, four miles (6km) east of what would later become the headquarters of the Spade Ranch. One of the Newman cowboys on the 1879 round-up, was later Omaha mayor James Dahlman.</p><br>
<p>Word of the Newman Ranch&#39;s successful roundup of 1879 spread and rangeland along the Niobrara filled as fast as cattlemen could move in stock and erect shacks and corrals, but no ranch headquarters had as yet located within the Sandhills themselves. Bennett Irwin, one of the cattlemen on the 1879 roundup into the Sandhills, had as early as 1884 began to file on land in a large valley to the west of Bean Soup Lake called the Home Valley. The Home Valley is at the beginning of a series of large valleys capable of producing many thousands of tons of hay, making it an ideal location for settlement and development of a ranch.</p><br>
<p>On August 10, 1888, Bartlett Richards bought Bennett Irwin&#39;s filing near Bean Soup Lake in Sheridan County. The Log House from the Newman Ranch was disassembled and moved to its new location in the Home Valley, making it the first building erected at the newly formed Spade Ranch. During the 1890s, Richards developed his almost 800 square miles in Sheridan and Cherry Counties into manageable units. Ranching activities occurred year round. Following the breeding schedule, spring was calving and round up. Summer activities included harvesting hay to use for cattle feed in the fall and winter. Additional laborers were often hired to help with this task. During the fall fireguards were plowed to prevent fires from spreading, as the pastures had dried by the summer and cattle were shipped by railroad to markets in Omaha and Chicago. Year round activities included providing beef for the Indian agencies and building fences. Initially, fences created corrals at the ranch headquarters. By the early 1890s, fencing of grazing areas increased. The number of widespread roundups in the area may have increased the desire to fence in areas.</p><br>
<p>The Spade Ranch was one of the larger operations near the Pine Ridge Agency and supplied beef to the Dakota reservation. The Chadron Advocate reported in 1891," Bartlett Richards has received the beef contract at Pine Ridge Agency for the ensuing year. The amount is 6,000,000 pounds. This will require 6,000 head of cattle." The Spade continued a contract with the Pine Ridge Agency until 1896. Even though the agency provided good business, most of the steady business came from shipping cattle to packers or feeders in the corn belt.</p><br>
<p>In December 1895, the Richard and Cairnes partnership was formed with assets totaling $475,000.00 ( $12,087,227.00 current). Richards and Cairnes, Inc., included Richards as president, John Cairnes of Boston as vice president, and Jarvis Richards, secretary and treasurer. John Cairnes only attended one board meeting and in 1899 sold his stock to Richards and resigned. William Comstock took Cairnes place on the board, and they remained partners until Richards death in 1911.</p><br>
<p>As early as the 1880s, Richards established the Spade Ranch&#39;s cattle shipping point in Ellsworth, southwest of the Spade Ranch. In 1898, Richards and Cairnes, Inc., built a store, hotel, and stockyards in the small community. The store served as office headquarters for the Spade Ranch and included a general store and post office. The hotel built across the street from the store, provided free accommodations for the Spade Ranch cowboys.</p><br>
<p>In May 1899, the two companies (Richards and Cairnes, Inc., and Richards and Comstock) merged to form the Nebraska Land and Feeding Company. Bartlett Richards, William Comstock, Jarvis Richards, DeForest Richards, and E.C. Harris of Chadron were named directors. At the time of the merger, the company range included 16,000 head of cattle. Bankers authorized loans of $150,000.00 ($3,817,019.11 current) to purchase additional cattle.</p><br>
<p>William Comstock stayed in the home valley of the Spade Ranch headquarters, which is approximately 25 mi north of Ellsworth. Comstock had a sod house at the headquarters, another soddie as a ranch office, a good-sized bunkhouse, the log cookhouse (the log building moved from the Newman Ranch), a barn, feed yards, large corrals for working with cattle, breaking horses, branding, and dipping cattle, a blacksmith shop, a machine shop and the ranch store. The ranch store featured staple groceries, clothing, supplies, and a place to pick up mail carried from the Ellsworth post office. Later Comstock built a large frame house in the center of Spade operations. One additional house was built as a home for Spade foreman, Mike Peterson. Peterson worked for the Spade for several years, but rather than work for a wage, he received both land and stock.</p><br>
<p>By January 1899, telephone lines were constructed from Gordon to Ellsworth, and lines were proposed to extend to Rushville, Hay Springs, and Chadron under the new "Ranch Telephone Company". The Ranch Telephone Company was incorporated with Richards as president. Telephone lines connected the cattle-shipping points on the Burlington Railroad—Ellsworth, Lakeside, and Bingham—with Comstock&#39;s headquarters at the ranch.</p><br>
<p>Richards moved his headquarters from Chadron to Ellsworth in 1901 to be closer to the ranch. He completed his brick house in Ellsworth in the summer of 1902. The Richards family had a winter residence built in Coronado, California, that same year.</p><br>
<p>Richards began to concentrate on upgrading the breeding operation. He experimented with grain feeds to take care of calves and other special feeding problems, and he put in windmills for adequate water. Richards and Comstock were the first cattlemen in the area to use chloro-naptholeum, a livestock dip that removed lice, mange, Texas itch, and other external parasites. The Spade Ranch was the agent for this patented product west of the Mississippi River. In 1903, the Spade&#39;s Hereford cattle won the Grand Prize at the American Royal Stock Show in Kansas City, Missouri, for the best of any breed in both yearling and calf competition.</p><br>
<h4>War widow claims</h4><br>
<p>In 1901, Richards had 400 sections of land surveyed north of Ellsworth and placed a four-wire fence around the 250,000 acre. This area included government-owned land with 30 reservoirs, each of which had two or three windmills and water tanks for the stock. The fencing of pastures was necessary to prevent scattering of cattle and preserve breeding. To protect grazing lands from settlers, some ranches, such as the Spade, filed 160 acre homesteads where they had built fences. For example, the Spade Ranch paid Civil War veterans, their widows, and others to make the land claims and then transfer the leases to the ranch. This method allowed ranches to protect ranges and buy time in hope that a leasing law would be passed. The first batch of Civil War widows filed for the Spade Ranch in July 1902 and, within a month, enough widow claims had been added to cover the western side of Richard&#39;s southern pasture.</p><br>
<h3>Fencing controversy and trials</h3><br>
<p>In general, cattlemen did not feel that fencing was wrong. They believed they were fencing land unsuitable for any other uses, especially farming. Further, they believed a method of leasing land was a way to give value to the government land in the Sandhills and allow fencing to be legal. The House Committee on Public Lands held hearings on leasing and grazing legislation between January and June 1902.</p><br>
<p>Richards testified in favor of the Bowersock Bill, making the following plea:</p><br>
<p>Congress hesitated to pass a leasing act, and the United States Department of the Interior was determined to remove the fences. By November 1902, the Rushville Standard reported that Bartlett Richards had been ordered to remove his fences in Sheridan and Cherry Counties. The fenced enclosed about 60 civil townships, which would be enough to support 960 families at two sections per family. The Secretary of the Interior, Ethan A. Hitchcock, following the Roosevelt administration&#39;s direction, set out to enforce the 1885 Van Wyck Law, which forbade the fencing of public lands.</p><br>
<p>In 1905, Richards and Comstock were indicted and brought to trial for the illegal fencing of 212,000 acre of government land. They first entered a plea of not guilty, but quickly reconsidered and plead guilty to "asserting ownership and exclusive occupancy of government lands". Attorney Richard S. Hall told the court as the plea was entered for his clients:"It is our intention to comply with the law. We are removing the fences as rapidly as we can, but such as may remain, we have nothing to do with. Wherever the government shows us we have an unlawful fence, we will remove it." The fences they had "nothing to do with" may refer to those on a common boundary with other ranches or on widow claims.</p><br>
<p>On November 13, 1905, Richards and Comstock were sentenced to the custody of a United States Marshal for six hours and a fine of $300 and half of court costs. The modest sentence may have reflected a finding that they did not intimidate settlers and that their employees were at work removing the fences. Controversially, newspaper accounts charged that Richards and Comstock took part in a victory celebration instead of serving time. The Secretary of the Interior was upset about the news and fired District Attorney Baxter and Marshal Thomas L. Mathews, the officer in charge of Richards and Comstock&#39;s six-hour sentence. In reality, during their sentence, Richards and Comstock returned to the hotel to pack, write letters, shop, eat dinner, and arrive at the train station for the 11 p.m. train to Ellsworth.</p><br>
<p>In August 1906, new changes were brought against all Spade officials for "conspiracy to defraud the government of the title and use of public lands, subornation of perjury, and conspiracy to suborn perjury". The case was called to trial on November 12, 1906, in the Federal District Court in Omaha before Judge William H. Munger. Richards and Comstock did not testify. United States Secret Service men spent 13 months investigating and getting evidence. Affidavits were taken from 600 witnesses, subpoenas were issued for 165 witnesses, and 132 people offered evidence in trail.</p><br>
<p>On December 20, 1906, the jury delivered a guilty verdict on 35 of the 38 counts. A motion for a new trial was overruled and the sentence to Bartlett Richards and William Comstock was $1,500 fines and eight months in prison. Richards and Comstock appealed the verdict and were released on a $5,000 bond. The appellate court affirmed the guilty verdict on December 3, 1909. On October 17, 1910, the Supreme Court declined to hear the appeals of Richards, Comstock, and their associates, and ordered them to pay the fines and prepare to serve their sentences beginning on December 7.</p><br>
<p>Comstock, Jameson, and Triplett surrendered in late November and Richards arrived in Omaha on December 7, 1910. All four were transferred to the Adams County jail in Hastings to serve their sentences. Again the press covered the story of their imprisonment with false accounts. It was reported that Richards and Comstock were receiving special treatment but, in reality, the two were in the same surroundings as other prisoners and were granted very few privileges.</p><br>
<p>In June 1911 Richards was allowed to go to the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, for gallstone surgery and returning to the Hastings jail on August 10. Richards had long-standing intestinal troubles and never fully recovered from surgery. Bartlett Richards died while incarcerated at Hastings, Nebraska, in the early morning hours of September 4, 1911, before his wife could arrive by train from the family home in Coronado, California. When Will Comstock first heard the news of the partner&#39;s death, he is reported to have said, "May the angels guide you into Paradise, and may the martyrs come to meet you." The next day William Comstock was released and his sentence commuted by order of President William Taft so as to attend the funeral of his business partner in San Diego.</p><br>
<p>The trials and appeals had caused financial strain on the ranch and holdings of the Nebraska Land Company. Before his imprisonment, Richards had been ill and no longer directly managed the ranch. During his imprisonment, there was no direct supervision of the ranch affairs. Following Richards death, Comstock took control of the Spade Ranch and the Comstock and Richards families shared quarters at the Ellsworth house in the summers. In 1912, Comstock closed the C Bar and Overton Ranches, reducing the official land holding of the Spade Ranch. William Comstock died of cancer in the fall of 1916. Despite Comstocks advice to the contrary, Mrs. Richards kept control of the ranch.</p><br>
<p>It was difficult to maintain the ranch, because the era of free range was over. By 1916, Kinkaiders had claimed the land in the middle of the Spade range. Range land, once free, now had to be leased or bought from the homesteaders. The Nebraska Land and Feeding Company borrowed $200,000 ($3,893,991.77 current) from the New York Trust Company through a first mortgage on the Spade Land. The ranch survived until the depression of 1922-1923, during which time the mortgages on the land were foreclosed. By this time, the holdings of the Spade Ranch had been reduced to about 60,000 acre. The Richards family spent their last summer in Ellsworth in 1923 and the ranch was turned over to the bank.</p><br>
<h3>Reviving the Spade – the Bixby acquisition</h3><br>
<p>With the New York Trust Companys takeover of the Spade Ranch following the Nebraska Land and Feeding Companys foreclosure the future of the Spade was in question. In late 1923 Edward M. Brass, and his business partner, Edward P. Meyers, both prominent cattlemen, business men and owners of the Sandhill Cattle Company secured the lease on the Spade Ranch. Brass and Meyers seemed to have uncanny foresight of economic change. Prior to 1922 they had sold most of their cattle at good prices and then leased their ranches out then with cattle prices low in 1923-24, they bought back into the cattle business. Beginning in 1924 management of the ranch was given to Lawrence Y. Bixby, cattleman and former employee of the Nebraska Land and Feeding Company.</p><br>
<p>Lawrence had first arrived at the Spade Ranch in 1909 at the age of thirteen and grew up observing and working for its owners. In 1908 his father James Bixby, an eastern professor, bought a homestead relinquishment four miles East of the Spade Ranch headquarters next to Bean Soup Lake after James had taken a teaching position for Bartlett Richards and William Comstock. On March 3, 1909, the rest of the family arrived at the rail siding in Ellsworth. As they freighted past the Spade Ranch Store with milk cow trailing, the Spade Foreman Mike Peterson saw them from the front porch and laughed when he saw the familys piano in the wagon and said “I’ll just give them nesters six months.” Lawrence would later write, “Before the Petersons left a few years later, Mike sold me his homestead for $11 dollars an acre.” They chose the tranquil name of Cloverleaf Ranch for their new homestead but in the first year a rattlesnake bit their dog, James killed a wolf and a neighbor threatened to contest Lawrences sister Inas homestead filing unless they gave him a cow, calf and a spool of wire. A two-room sod house was to be their home until 1914 when they hauled $427.00 in lumber from Bingham for a frame house. The Spade Ranch was post office, store, branding-dipping area, and business channel for the Bixbys, as well as their new neighbors. His mother Jennie was offered a job cooking for the ranch. “The Spade always had cook trouble, they’d ship in a cook from Denver and the cook would line up all the extracts he could get and drink it all”, Lawrence wrote, “They would come down to the homestead and get mother to cook. I used to go up and help her at the cookhouse. I rode Old Plunger and had an eleven dollar Sears Roebuck saddle”. Lawrence&#39;s first job for the Spade was operating an 8-foot Sulkey rake during Haying. In 1909 Bartlett Richards bought 20,000 head of cattle delivered from Mexico. “That November it just didn’t stop snowing. The Spade lost 10,000 head of those cattle. There was a pile of hides in Ellsworth as big as the depot. My brother Onie and I skinned cows all winter for 50 cents a cow, 25 cents per calf. We tried to skin the dead cattle before they froze’, Lawrence wrote, “so we’d chain a dead cows horns to a post, slit the skin around her ears so we could fasten a chain there, hook our old horse Dan to that chain and peel off the hide.” During the sub-zero weather as many as 30 Mexican cows a night might die in the rushes of the East Spade Home Valley alone. One afternoon Bartlett Richards yellow buggy approached, “He got out of his cart,” Lawrence wrote, “helped us turn the cow on her back, and said, ‘Hurry up, you kids. Get that hide off and get home before you freeze!’”. Lawrence attended rural schools until 1911 when he went to stay in Lincoln with his father’s cousin, Dr. Ammi L. Bixby. In 1913 Lawrence was Lincoln High Schools best runner of a mile. When Lawrence was old enough to file on a homestead of his own he described his land on the Alkali Meadow as a quarter mile deep and two miles wide but he met requirements and received patent on the string of 40’s.</p><br>
<p>Lawrence’s father James died in 1918 and his mother Jennie along with Lawrence operated their land and cattle for a time as Mrs. J.H. Bixby and Sons. Bartlett Richards had died in 1911 and Will Comstock in 1916. Although Comstock had advised Mrs. Richards and her sons Bartlett Jr. and Longley to sell the Spade before his death the Richards Family remained on the ranch, which by 1920 had dwindled to about 60,000 acres, far from its height of 500,000 acres in 1900. In 1922 with cattle prices crashing Mrs. Richards was forced to abdicate when the mortgages were foreclosed. In 1924 Edward Brass and E.P. Meyers, operating as the Sandhills Cattle Company, branding the Sugar Bowl brand, leased the Spade along with their Triangle, Sillasen, Joy, Carver and Big Creek Ranches. They had sold most of their cattle beforehand at good prices then with livestock prices at a low in 1923–24 they bought back in but lacked hay and range. Lawrence was hired to put up the hay on the Spade, feeding 10,000 tons for.75 cents per ton that first year. When a buyer loaded them with 14,000 head of Texas yearlings, Brass depended on Lawrence to find the necessary rangeland. On May 23, 1927 Lawrence married Miss Eleanor Riordan of York, Ne. Eleanor had begun teaching Cherry County Dist. 168 the previous year. Lawrence wrote, “I married her the day school was out. I would have earlier but she was making $40 dollars a month and I wanted to be sure she had it all.” Through their union Lawrence and Eleanor bore two sons Larry Leonard in 1928 and James Daniel in 1929. Slowly with Brasss help, hard work and willing bankers, Lawrence was able to obtain some the most desirable old Spade range. “When I got a chance to buy into the Spade land, Brass loaned me the money,” he said, “Eleanor cooked for the hay crews and everyone on the place worked hard.” In 1937 after E.P. Meyers death the Sandhills Cattle Company deal was dissolved. In the late 1930s Lawrence established himself by setting up a little better than average salary scale and obtained the best ranch cooks around. He seldom fired anyone and selected his help carefully. A man had to be able to handle draft horse teams, cable hay, pitch multiple stacks a day, chop ice on a twenty five foot tank and scatter up to a ton of cake. In 1947 Lawrence purchased the Spades first airplane, a Piper J-3 Cub, but found the plane to small and gave it to his boys. Lawrence then, at the age of 52, purchased a Stinson 108-3 Flying Station Wagon of which he estimated himself to have flown over 100,000 miles on routine ranch duties. Aircraft proved to be vital during the ‘49 Blizzard and for daily life on secluded Sandhill ranches. In 1950 he estimated that 25 percent of Sandhills ranchers owned or made use of ranch airplanes. Lawrence served on the executive board of the Nebraska Stock Growers Association, Nebraska Beef Council, the Highway 27 Association, Sheridan County Draft Board and in 1954 was elected President of the Nebraska Flying Farmers and Ranchers Association. Lawrence hosted fly-ins, rodeos, bbq’s, ballgames, and dances through the years and believed that a handshake answered better than words. Lawrence always admired Bartlett Richards as a cattleman. “Not many people appreciated Bartlett Richards vision, and how well informed and capable the man was. If he had lived, it’s had to imagine what he might have accomplished. The homesteaders would have starved to death without Richards," he said. " He loaned them milk cows, gave them horses and let them charge at the Spade Ranch Store. Even after the Kinkaid Act people couldnt exist by trying to farm or raise cattle on 640 acres (260 ha). They left and Richards bought their land at fair prices. Through Lawrences efforts, including compiling a petition of 300 cattlemans signatures, in 1970 Bartlett Richards was inducted into the National Cowboy Hall of Fame in Oklahoma City, Ok. In 1980 Lawrence received news that six sections of the Spade Home Valley and numerous original buildings at the headquarters had been listed on the National Register of Historic Places. This included the 1879 log cookhouse (moved from the Newman Ranch in 1888), 1889 horse barn and the 1889 Richards-Comstock House originally constructed of sod. In that same year Bixby himself was named a patron member of the National Cowboy Hall of Fame and his photograph was etched on a silver plaque in the Founders Hall section.</p><br>
<p>During his ownership, Bixby planted thousands of trees in the home valley around the Spade Ranch and installed airstrips for the ranch airplanes. In addition to reviving the Spade Ranch, Lawrence Bixby also returned the Richards Home in Ellsworth, Nebraska to noteworthy status. Since the time of the Richards ownership, the house had been divided into apartments and was in disrepair. In 1953–1954, Lawrence and wife Eleanor moved to the Ellsworth house after it was rehabilitated. In 1965 the ranch headquarters included the large 1889 Comstock-Bixby house where Lawrences son Jim and family lived, another residence built in 1952 for Lawrences other son Larry and family, three large bunkhouses, the 1879 log cookhouse, large 1889 horse barn, cattle dipping vat, livestock scales, feed yards, large corrals for working with cattle and breaking horses, calving barns, 1895 blacksmith shop, cattle feed storage facilities, a machine shop and a large three-aircraft hangar. In 1954, Bixby donated $60,000 ($552,863.20 current USD) to help pave Nebraska Highway 27 from Ellsworth to Gordon, which passed by the ranch.</p><br>
<p>State Historical Preservation Officer Marvin F. Kivett explained:</p><br>
<p>Lawrence Bixby died of heart failure May 26, 1982, an Alliance Times Herald headline read:</p><br>
<p>Following Lawrence Bixbys death in 1982 ranch operations were passed to son James D. Bixby. Jim who had won notoriety in the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association Calf Roping circuit retained a very large quarterhorse remuda and maintained the Spades tradition of using only horse and cowboy for daily ranch operations. During his ownership Bixby transitioned the cow herd from Hereford to Angus Cattle due to changing market demands. Jim was very active on and off the ranch until his death from cancer in 1990.</p><br>
<p>The Spade has been operated by Jims son Bret Y. Bixby, a Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association Steer Roper, since 1990. Bret, like his father and grandfather before him maintains the Spades usage of horse and rider.</p><br>
<h3>The Spade Ranch today</h3><br>
<p>The Spade Ranch continues to operate today in the traditional western fashion. Most of the original buildings in the Home Valley of the Spade are extant and functioning in their original capacity. Although ranching operations have changed considerably since the early days of Richards and Comstock, cowboys and ranch hands are still employed by the Bixby&#39;s. The number of employees needed to operate the ranch has significantly decreased over the last few years due to advancements in technology and equipment. During the summer months of July and August hay is harvested out the large meadows to be used to feed cattle during winter. Calving season begins in February and tapers off by early April. This is a very critical time and the calving herd requires around the clock supervision. Large roundups are carried out in the spring and fall to ready cattle for market and branding. Branding at the Spade is a large yearly event – cattle are roped from horseback, wrestled by hand and branded with the Spade brand. The Branding is traditionally concluded with a large western dinner. Cattle are no longer shipped to market by train, but rather by cattle truck. Aircraft are used to locate cattle in large pastures, spot downed fences and for ranch business abroad. Bixby Black Angus cattle are nationally recognized for both their quality and genetics. The Bixby family works closely with the Nebraska State Historical Society and Chadron State College in the preservation and research of the Sandhills region of Nebraska.</p><br>
<p>Although some ranches around the Spade are no longer working cattle ranches, the Spade Ranch continues to operate as a beef cattle ranch. Richards and Comstock&#39;s legacy was carried on by Lawrence Bixby, whose legacy is carried on by his descendants. Historically, the Spade Ranch is an important feature of the landscape of Sheridan County, and it continues to be one today.</p><br>
<h3>Books</h3><br>
<p>Bartlett Richards: Nebraska Sandhills Cattleman written by son Bartlett Richards, Jr. with Ruth Van Ackeren, details the life of Bartlett Richards, Sr. with his personal and business correspondence from his first arriving at Cheyenne, Wyoming in August 1879, his education and apprenticeship with some of the most powerful Havard-taught cattle barons of the time, through the rise of his enormous cattle ranching empires in Wyoming and Nebraska, the controversial land trials at the hands of the government and to his unexpected death in 1911.</p><br>
<p>Lawrence Bixby: Preserver of the Old Spade Ranch written by Ruth Van Ackeren and Robert M. Howard, follows the story of Lawrence Bixby who raised Hereford cattle, Percheron and Belgian Workhorses and Calf Roping Quarterhorses.</p><br>
<p>The Salmagundi Club, sometimes referred to as the Salmagundi Art Club, is a fine arts center founded in 1871 in the Greenwich Village section of Manhattan, New York City. Since 1917, it has been located at 47 Fifth Avenue., its membership roster totaled roughly 1,250 members.</p><br>
<p>The Salmagundi Club has served as a center for fine arts, artists and collectors, with art exhibitions, art classes, artist demonstrations, art auctions and many other types of events. It is also a sponsor of the United States Coast Guard Art Program (COGAP).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>It was founded in 1871. Originally called the New York Sketch Class, and later the New York Sketch Club, the Salmagundi Club had its beginnings at the eastern edge of Greenwich Village in sculptor Jonathan Scott Hartley&#39;s Broadway studio, where a group of artists, students, and friends at the National Academy of Design, which at the time was located at Fourth Avenue and Twenty-third Street, gathered weekly on Saturday evenings.</p><br>
<p>The club formally changed its name to The Salmagundi Sketch Club in January 1877.</p><br>
<p>Growing rapidly, the organization was housed in a series of rented properties including 121 Fifth Avenue, 49 West 22nd Street, 40 West 22nd Street and finally 14 West Twelfth Street, where it remained for 22 years. In April 1917, following a three-year search, the club purchased Irad and Sarah Hawley&#39;s 1853 Italianate-style brownstone townhouse at 47 Fifth Avenue between East Eleventh and East Twelfth Streets from the estate of William G. Park for $75,000.00 and erected a two-story annex in the rear at an additional cost of $20,000.00 to house its primary art gallery and a billiard room. A housewarming event on February 5, 1918 was attended by more than 500 persons. In 1918, the club spearheaded a national effort to produce range-finder paintings used to train military gunners for World War I. The club provided the canvas and painting materials for these special-purpose paintings.</p><br>
<p>In 1969 the building was designated a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. In 1975 it was added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Membership</h2><br>
<p>The Salmagundi Club was a male-only club for its first century, although artworks by women were accepted and praised. A sister club for women artists, the Pen and Brush Club, was formed around the corner from Salmagundi in 1894. Salmagundi began admitting women members in 1973.</p><br>
<p>Members of the Salmagundi Club have included Thomas P. Barnett, William Richardson Belknap, Alon Bement, Ralph Blakelock, A. J. Bogdanove, Charles Bosseron Chambers, James Wells Champney, William Merritt Chase, C.K. Chatterton, Frederick Stuart Church, Jay Hall Connaway, Francis S. Dixon, John Henry Dolph, Charles Dana Gibson, Gordon H. Grant, Walter Granville-Smith, Edmund Greacen, Charles P. Gruppé, Emile Gruppe, William Hart, Childe Hassam, Ernest Martin Hennings, Harry Hoffman, Alexander Pope Humphrey, George Inness Jr., Lajos "Louis" Jambor, John LaFarge, Ernest Lawson, Austin W. Lord, Frank Mason, Leopold Matzal, Samizu Matsuki, John Francis Murphy, Spencer Baird Nichols, Richard C. Pionk, Howard Pyle, Will J. Quinlan, Norman Rockwell, Harry Roseland, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, R. F. Schabelitz, Leopold Seyffert, Channel Pickering Townsley, Louis Comfort Tiffany, Edward Charles Volkert, J. Alden Weir, Jack Wemp, Stanford White, William Wilson (physicist), Stuart Williamson, Joseph Mortimer Lichtenauer and N.C. Wyeth.</p><br>
<p>Honorary members have included Paul Cadmus, Schuyler Chapin, Winston Churchill, Buckminster Fuller, Al Hirschfeld, and Thomas Hoving.</p><br>
<p>Salmagundi curatorial committee is responsible for maintaining Salmagundi’s permanent representational art collection of approximately 1,800 works from the 1840s to today, including: paintings, sculpture, objects and works on paper by its past and present artist members.</p><br>
<p>The collection consists of exhibition purchase prizes, competition purchase prizes, artist donations, and estate bequests.</p><br>
<p>The works are rotated on a continual basis throughout the townhouse and are featured in live shows and online exhibitions throughout the year.</p><br>
<p>Past Chairs of the Board have been</p><br>
<p>Joseph Hartley, 1871–1889</p><br>
<p>George W. Maynard, 1888–1889</p><br>
<p>Charles Yardley Turner, 1883–1889</p><br>
<p>Thomas Moran, 1893–1896</p><br>
<p>W. Lewis Fraser, 1896–1897</p><br>
<p>Alexander Theobald Van Laer, 1897–1898</p><br>
<p>Robert C. Minor, 1898–1899</p><br>
<p>Alexander Theobald Van Laer, 1899–1900</p><br>
<p>George H. McCord, 1900–1901</p><br>
<p>George Inness Jr., 1901–1903</p><br>
<p>J. Scott Hartley, 1903–1905</p><br>
<p>Alexander Theobald Van Laer, 1905–1908</p><br>
<p>Henry B. Snell, 1908–1910</p><br>
<p>Frank Knox Morton Rehn, 1910–1911</p><br>
<p>Carleton Wiggins, 1911–1913</p><br>
<p>Charles Vezin, 1913–1914</p><br>
<p>F. Ballard Williams, 1914–1919</p><br>
<p>Emil Carlsen, 1919–1920</p><br>
<p>J. Massey Rhind, 1920–1922</p><br>
<p>Hobart Nichols, 1922–1924</p><br>
<p>W. Granville-Smith, 1924–1926</p><br>
<p>Franklin De Haven, 1926–1929</p><br>
<p>Bruce Crane, 1929–1933</p><br>
<p>Louis Betts, 1933–1935</p><br>
<p>George Elmer Brown, 1935–1937</p><br>
<p>Frederick W. Hutchinson, 1937–1939</p><br>
<p>Gordon Grant, 1939–1941</p><br>
<p>George Lober, 1941–1944</p><br>
<p>Frederick K. Detwiller, 1944–1946</p><br>
<p>Henry O&#39; Connor, 1946–1947</p><br>
<p>Silvio B. Valerio, 1947–1949</p><br>
<p>Percy Albee, 1949–1953</p><br>
<p>Russell Rypsam, 1953–1955</p><br>
<p>Henry Laussucq, 1955–1957</p><br>
<p>Junius Allen, 1957–1959</p><br>
<p>A. Henry Nordhausen, 1959–1963</p><br>
<p>Francis Vandeveer Kughler, 1963–1966</p><br>
<p>Martin Hannon, 1966–1970</p><br>
<p>John N. Lewis, 1970–1976</p><br>
<p>Martin Hannon, 1976–1977</p><br>
<p>Raymond R. Goldberg, 1977–1979</p><br>
<p>Richard Clive, 1979–1981</p><br>
<p>Carl L. Thomson, 1981–1983</p><br>
<p>Ruth B. Reininghaus, 1983–1987</p><br>
<p>Edward A. Brennan, 1987–1990</p><br>
<p>Kenneth W. Fitch, 1990–1991</p><br>
<p>Robert Volpe, 1991–1994</p><br>
<p>Richard C. Pionk, 1994–2007</p><br>
<p>Claudia Seymour, 2007–2013</p><br>
<p>Robert Pillsbury, 2013–2019</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth Spencer, 2019-2021</p><br>
<p>Jacob Collins, 2021 - 2024</p><br>
<p>Aurelio ("Ray") Cisneros, 2024</p><br>
<p>George Grubb, 2024 -</p><br>
